European Union
Page last updated December 15, 2023 by Doug McVay, Editor.
1. Prevalence of Substance Use in the European Union " Around 83 million or 28.9 % of adults (aged 15-64) in the European Union are estimated to have used illicit drugs at least once in their lifetime. This should be regarded as a minimum estimate due to reporting biases. " Experience of drug use is more frequently reported by males (50.6 million) than females (32.8 million). " The most commonly tried drug is cannabis (47.6 million males and 30.9 million females). " Much lower estimates are reported for the lifetime use of cocaine (9.6 million males and 4.3 million females), MDMA (6.8 million males and 3.5 million females) and amphetamines (5.9 million males and 2.7 million females). " Levels of lifetime use of cannabis differ considerably between countries, ranging from around 4 % of adults in Malta to 45 % in France." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2021), European Drug Report 2021: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
2. Number of New Psychoactive Substances Continues to Grow "Since around 2008, there has been a dramatic growth in the NPS market as globalisation and new technologies, such as the internet, have allowed them to be produced, sold and supplied on an industrial scale. Between 2009 and 2018, 119 countries and territories reported the emergence of 892 different NPS to UNODC, through the UNODC Early Warning Advisory on NPS (UNODC, 2019b). In Europe, more than 730 NPS have appeared on the drug market since monitoring began in 1997, with around 90 % of these being detected between 2008 and 2018 (EMCDDA, 2019b). The growth in the market has also been reflected in large increases in the number of seizures made by law enforcement agencies, and in reports of severe and fatal overdoses. "Many NPS are produced and sold openly by chemical and pharmaceutical companies in China. They are imported into Europe, processed into products and sold in shops, on the internet or through the illicit drug markets. To a lesser extent, India is also an important source of some NPS, particularly those sold as medicines (Evans-Brown and Sedefov, 2018). Illicit laboratories in China, India, and Europe also produce some types of NPS." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction and Europol (2019), EU Drug Markets Report 2019, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
3. Growth in New/Novel Psychoactive Substances "The most recent data shows that drug producers continue to create new substances to avoid legal controls, although the rate at which new psychoactive substances are now entering the market appears to be slowing. Between 2016 and 2022, typically around 50 new psychoactive substances appeared on the market for the first time each year; this fell to 26 in 2023. In addition, around 400 previously reported new substances are detected on the market each year." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2024), European Drug Report 2024: Trends and Developments. |
4. Estimated Prevalence of Ketamine Use in the EU "The quantity of ketamine seized and reported to the EU Early Warning System on new psychoactive substances has varied over time, but has remained at relatively high levels in recent years, suggesting that this drug is likely to be consistently available in some national drug markets and may have become an established drug of choice in some settings. Ketamine is commonly snorted, but can also be injected, and has been linked to various dose-dependent acute and chronic harms, including neurological and cardiovascular toxicity, mental health problems, such as depression, and urological complications, such as bladder damage from intensive use or the presence of adulterants. Ketamine may also be added to other drug mixtures, including MDMA powders and tablets, although 2021 data from drug checking services show that these are generally less adulterated than other illicit drugs. It can also be found in mixtures sold as ‘pink cocaine’ or ‘tucibi’, which are more likely to contain ketamine and other synthetic drugs, such as amphetamines or MDMA, but less likely to contain the synthetic drug 2C-B. As noted elsewhere in the 2023 European Drug Report, people using mixtures of drugs may be unaware of the substances they are consuming, and drug interaction effects can expose them to elevated health risks. While the numbers of clients entering treatment for problems related to ketamine use remain low overall, some EU Member States have seen increases and there is a strong case for improving the monitoring of both the use of this drug and the extent to which it is associated with negative health outcomes." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, DOI: 10.2810/161905. |
5. Injection Drug Use in the EU "Among first-time clients entering specialised drug treatment in 2021, or most recent year available, with heroin as their primary drug, 19% (down from 38% in 2013) reported injecting as their main route of administration. In this group, levels of injecting vary between countries, from less than 10% in Denmark, Spain, France and Portugal to 60% or more in Czechia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, last accessed July 9, 2023. |
6. The Future of Drug Policies in the EU "Some participants noted that in their country there was a move towards greater recognition of the need for public health-oriented approaches to tackle drug problems accompanied by a shift in the goals of drug policies towards reducing drug-related harms. However, the relatively limited set of indicators that has historically been used to evaluate drug policy may have limited utility for informing on outcomes relevant to this perspective. Some drug policy experts have argued, for example, that a preoccupation with drug use prevalence as a primary outcome measure for drug policy is problematic, as it does not sufficiently consider the complexity of patterns of use or harms, nor distinguish sufficiently between different forms of drug use and the harm attributed to them. Taken together, trends suggest that moving towards drug policies that accentuate targeted approaches to reducing drug harms necessitates concomitant shifts in the focus and priorities of drug monitoring and evaluation systems. This would imply giving greater attention to indicators that monitor harm. In addition, approaches which can more holistically consider different patterns of use and how these may interact are likely to be necessary for informing future drug policy evaluations (Rhodes, 2019). "A drug policy shift towards a focus on harms to target responses may also be accompanied by arguments for drug law reform. It is argued for example that there is evidence that suggests the criminalisation of drugs can increase some health, social and economic harms. Accordingly, there is a momentum towards seeking alternatives to criminalisation for simple possession and greater consideration in policy discourse on the possible unintended negative consequences of different policy options (Rhodes, 2019)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), The future of drug monitoring in Europe until 2030, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
7. Impact of National Drug Policies on Drug Use Prevalence "Differences in the prevalence of drug use are influenced by a variety of factors in each country. As countries with more liberal drug policies (such as the Netherlands) and those with a more restricted approach (such as Sweden) have not very different prevalence rates, the impact of national drug policies (more liberal versus more restrictive approaches) on the prevalence of drug use and especially problem drug use remains unclear. However, comprehensive national drug policies are of high importance in reducing adverse consequences of problem drug use such as HIV infections, hepatitis B and C and overdose deaths." European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "2001 Annual Report on the State of the Drugs Problem in the European Union" (Brussells, Belgium: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001), p. 12. |
8. The Future of Cannabis Policies in the Eu "Globally, some recent changes in cannabis policies have experimented with different ways of regulating the sale and use of cannabis. Evolving cannabis policies raise numerous potential concerns about negative side-effects. These include increased commercialisation of legal cannabis; increased influence of the cannabis industry (similar to ‘big pharma’); possible increased use or more harmful patterns of use; complexities for regulatory approaches for the cannabis markets between countries that do not adopt the same policy; and tensions with UN international system for drug control and multi-national cooperation. There are also concerns related to the increased availability of products containing high levels of THC that may increase the risk of acute intoxication. There are also broader policy issues that may grow in importance should commercialised cannabis markets become established, such as what are the appropriate regulatory frameworks for addressing cannabis-impaired driving or restricting commercial availability to minors. Additionally, it was observed by some participants that an increased supply of the commercially available CBD products in some Europe countries raised concerns about possible negative effects on the consumers (EMCDDA, 2020). Possible emerging needs identified in the policy workshop included how to monitor quality assurance of cannabis-based products being produced legally in the European Union and how to identify and report on any potential risks associated with new policies and products. "The debates about shifts in cannabis policies may also require us to make a clearer distinction between legalisation of cannabis for medical purposes and for recreational use. This is likely to require reliable information and timely monitoring of the health effects of cannabis use (medical and recreational) from the countries or regions where cannabis regulations have been changed." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), The future of drug monitoring in Europe until 2030, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
9. Prevalence of Cannabis Use Among Young People in the European Union "Cannabis was the most widely used illicit drug in all ESPAD countries. On average, 16% of students had used cannabis at least once in their lifetime (Table 8a). The countries with the highest prevalence of cannabis use were Czechia (28%), Italy (27%) and Latvia (26%). The lowest levels of cannabis use (2.9-7.3%) were reported in Kosovo, North Macedonia, Iceland and Serbia. On average, boys reported cannabis use to a larger extent than girls (boys 18 % versus girls 13%). This was the case in nearly all countries except for Bulgaria, Slovakia, Malta, the Netherlands and Czechia, where rates were about the same for boys and girls. The largest gender differences (more than 10 percentage points, with higher rates among boys) were found in Georgia and Monaco." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
10. Drug Use By Students and Young People in the European Union "Lifetime use of illicit drugs varied considerably across the ESPAD countries (Table 8a). On average, 17% of ESPAD students reported having used any illicit drug at least once. The highest percentage of students reporting lifetime use of any illicit drug was found in Czechia (29%), followed by Italy (28%), Latvia (27%) and Slovakia (25%). Particularly low levels (10% or less) of illicit drug use were noted in Kosovo, Iceland, North Macedonia, Ukraine, Serbia, Sweden, Norway, Greece and Romania. On average, 19% of boys and 14% of girls had used illicit drugs at least once during their lifetime. In most ESPAD countries, the prevalence rate was higher among boys than girls. Noticeable gender differences were found in Georgia (24% for boys versus 8.8% for girls), Monaco (29% versus 17%), Cyprus (17% versus 7.0%) and Ireland (25% versus 15%)." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
11. Use of Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) By Young People In the European Union "Overall, an average of 2.5% of the students had used NPS at least once in the last 12 months, with the highest prevalence reported in Czechia, Latvia, Estonia, Poland and Monaco (4.0-4.9%) and the lowest prevalence reported in North Macedonia, Finland and Portugal ( 0.4-0.8%; Figure 10a). Generally, differences in NPS use between boys and girls were small; however, significantly more boys than girls reported the use of NPS in Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Ireland, Montenegro, Norway and Serbia, and significantly more girls than boys reported the use of NPS in Latvia and Slovenia (Figure 10b). "Among all students who had used NPS in the last 12 months, the majority (54%) reported use of herbal synthetic substances; 27% reported use of NPS in the form of powders or tablets, 13% reported the use of NPS in the form of liquids and 17% reported the use of NPS in other forms. Only a few countries reported higher rates of use of NPS in forms other than herbal smoking mixtures. In particular, powders/tablets were used by the majority of last-year NPS users in Finland (64%) and Norway (54%), liquids were reported by 36% of the users in the Netherlands, and the use of NPS in other forms was reported by half of the users in North Macedonia. Even though on average the differences between boys and girls in the reported appearance of NPS used in the last 12 months were low, in most individual countries noticeable gender differences were found. Focusing only on differences higher than 15 percentage points, with regard to herbal NPS, boys reported higher prevalence rates than girls in Romania, Georgia, Finland, Ireland and the Netherlands, while girls reported higher rates in Bulgaria, Ukraine, Slovakia and Lithuania; for powders/tablets, girls reported higher prevalence rates in many countries (Kosovo, Georgia, Slovakia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Ireland and Portugal), while a higher rate was found among boys in Cyprus; and higher prevalence rates were found for liquid forms of NPS among male users than female users in Portugal, Slovakia, Sweden, Lithuania and North Macedonia, with girls reporting higher rates in the Netherlands and Finland (see Additional Table 71a and b)." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
12. Trends In Illicit Substance Use By Young People In the European Union "Generally, between 1995 and 2011, there was an increase in the lifetime prevalence of illicit drug use, most of which occurred between 1995 and 1999. Since 2011, the prevalence has started to decrease slowly. The lifetime prevalence of illicit drug use among boys and girls follows a parallel trend, with the rate among girls being about 5-6 percentage points lower than that among boys (Figure 21). As cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug, the trend for lifetime cannabis use is similar to the trend for any illicit drug use, with rates of the former being only slightly lower across all years (Table 14). The prevalence rate of lifetime cannabis use among boys peaked in 2003, remained stable until 2011 and started to decrease thereafter. The prevalence rate of lifetime cannabis use among girls peaked in 2003 and stabilised thereafter (Figure 22). The rate of current (last-30-day) use of cannabis reached its highest level in 2011, stabilising thereafter, with gender differences of 2-3 percentage points across all years (Table 14 and Figure 23). "Lifetime use of illicit drugs other than cannabis rose to a peak in 2007 (Table 14). After 2007, the rate decreased slightly until 2015 and then stabilised in 2019. The same trend is observed among boys and girls, with a gender gap of 1-2 percentage points across all years (Figure 24)." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
13. Involvement of Heroin in Overdose Deaths in the EU "The data available have limitations in respect to quality and coverage, however, the information available suggests that heroin was only present in the majority of overdose deaths in a relatively small number of EU countries. A significant share of overdose deaths was reported by Austria (67%), Italy (56%), Ireland (46% in 2017), Poland (44% in 2016) and Romania (43%). In 7 other European countries, heroin was found in approximately a quarter to a third of reported overdose deaths: Portugal (37%), Slovenia (33%), Denmark (36%), France (33% in 2020), Türkiye (32%), Spain (28% in 2020) and Norway (23%). In 2021, in the north of Europe, less than 1 in 6 overdose deaths in Finland, Sweden and in the Baltic countries was reported to involve heroin." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, last accessed July 9, 2023. |
14. GHB, Ketamine, and Drug Checking "Both clinical and public interest has been growing in the therapeutic use of some novel substances, particularly psychedelic substances, but also dissociative drugs such as ketamine. A growing number of clinical studies are exploring the potential of a range of psychedelic substances to treat different mental health conditions. Generalising in this area is difficult, and much of the research remains in its infancy, but some research in this area appears promising. These developments have also received considerable media attention. An associated concern here is that this may encourage greater experimental use of these substances without medical support, potentially putting some vulnerable individuals at risk of suffering adverse consequences. At the same time, there are signs of unregulated programmes being operated in the European Union and elsewhere, in which the use of psychedelic substances is included as part of a wellness, therapeutic or spiritually oriented intervention. "Together, these developments have placed a renewed emphasis on the need to obtain a better understanding of the availability of both non-controlled and less common substances, as well as their impact on public health, in Europe. In particular, there are concerns about chronic harms from some of these substances, such as ketamine, and risks associated with more intensive patterns of use in certain niche settings and contexts, including the use of GHB in the chemsex scene. The presence of combinations of new synthetic opioids and new benzodiazepines further complicates overdose prevention efforts, potentially raising the need for reviewing the delivery methods of overdose-fatality prevention measures such as naloxone. There is an urgent need to improve our monitoring of the use and harms associated with these substances and to develop forensic and toxicological information sources in this area. Drug checking services will also continue to be an important sentinel data source. This information is needed to support the development and evaluation of effective harm reduction and other interventions appropriate to the settings and contexts in which these drugs are being consumed and the risks they may pose." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, DOI: 10.2810/161905. |
15. Prevalence of LSD, Mushroom, and Ketamine Use in the EU
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, DOI: 10.2810/161905. |
16. Ketamine in the EU "In 2022, generally very low levels of ketamine residues in municipal wastewater were reported by 15 cities, with the highest mass loads being detected in cities in Denmark, Spain, Italy and Portugal (see the figure Ketamine residues in wastewater in selected European cities, 2022, below)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, last accessed July 9, 2023. |
17. Benzodiazepines in the EU "Non-controlled and new benzodiazepines also continued to be available in some European countries but, again, current monitoring approaches make it difficult to comment on the scale of their use, although signals exist that these substances may have important consequences for health, especially when consumed in combination with other drugs. They are often very cheap and may be used by young people in combination with alcohol, sometimes resulting in potentially serious health reactions or aberrant behaviour. These substances have also been linked to overdose deaths among people who use opioids, and reports in 2021 show that the proportion of overdose deaths involving benzodiazepines increased in several countries. However, a lack of toxicological information currently means the role that benzodiazepines play in opioid-related deaths is not sufficiently understood. Mixtures containing new benzodiazepines and sedatives, respectively known as ‘benzo-dope’ and ‘tranq-dope’, have been linked to increases in overdose deaths in Canada and the United States. In 2022, the Estonian police reported seizing mixtures containing the new synthetic opioid metonitazene and bromazolam, a new benzodiazepine, and mixtures containing the new opioids protonitazene and metonitazene and the animal sedative and analgesic xylazine." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, DOI: 10.2810/161905. |
18. Drug Consumption Rooms in Operation in the EU "A total of 78 official drug consumption facilities currently operate in seven EMCDDA reporting countries, following the opening of the first two drug consumption facilities in the framework of a 6-year trial in France in 2016. There are also 12 facilities in Switzerland (see ‘Facts and figures’). "Breaking this down further, as of April 2018 there are: 31 facilities in 25 cities in the Netherlands; 24 in 15 cities in Germany; five in four cities in Denmark, 13 in seven cities in Spain; two in two cities in Norway; two in two cities in France; one in Luxembourg; and 12 in eight cities in Switzerland. "In Ireland, a law (Misuse of Drugs Act Supervised Injection Facilities 2017) was passed to enable licensing and regulation of such facilities. In the same month, the locations and area of operation of two fixed, and one mobile, supervised drug consumption facilities were announced in Lisbon, Portugal. The services are expected to become operational in the second half of 2018 and early 2019. Based on a feasibility study on drug consumption facilities in five major cities in Belgium (Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, Liège and Charleroi), recommendations were presented to Belgian policymakers in February 2018 (Vander Laenen et al., 2018). "Increasing opioid overdose deaths and research on two existing supervised injection sites in Vancouver are among the factors that currently see various municipalities establishing such facilities across Canada (Kerr et al., 2017; www.sallesdeconsommation.com). In Australia, a medically supervised injecting centre is under preparation in Melbourne, following the model of the existing facility in Sydney." EMCDDA, "Perspectives On Drugs: Drug consumption rooms: an overview of provision and evidence," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, June 2018. |
19. Involvement of Benzodiazepines in Overdose Deaths in the EU "In 2021, the proportion of overdose deaths involving benzodiazepines increased in several countries and was present in more than half of the cases in Denmark, Austria, Portugal and Finland (see figure Proportion of drug-induced deaths with benzodiazepines involved in selected countries, 2019–2021 in Drug-induced deaths in Europe)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2023), European Drug Report 2023: Trends and Developments, last accessed July 9, 2023. |
20. Estimated Prevalence of Cannabis Use Among Young Adults in the EU "It is estimated that 90.2 million adults in the European Union (aged 15-64), or 27.2 % of this age group, have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. Around 15 % (18.0 million) of young adults (aged 15-34) report using cannabis in the last year, with males being typically twice as likely to report use than females. Among the 27 countries that undertook surveys between 2014 and 2018, considerable variation exists, with last year use rates among young adults ranging from 3.5 % in Hungary to 21.8 % in France. When only 15- to 24-year-olds are considered, the prevalence of cannabis use is higher, with 19 % (10.4 million) having used the drug in the last year and 10 % in the last month (5.5 million). "In most countries, recent survey results show either stable or increasing last year cannabis use among young adults. Of the countries that have produced surveys since 2017 and reported confidence intervals, eight reported higher estimates, three were stable and one reported a decrease compared with the previous comparable survey. In eight of these countries, an increase in use among 15- to 24-yearolds has been reported in the most recent survey. "Few countries have sufficient survey data to permit statistical analysis of long-term trends in last year use among young adults (15-34). Where these exist, the results vary, although among some of the higher-prevalence countries there are increases between the most recent surveys. France shows a weak upward movement since 2005, with similar values for 2014 and 2017 of 22.1 % and 21.8 % respectively (Figure 5). Prevalence is stable in Spain at a relatively high rate but with an increase between 2015 and 2017 from 17.1 % to 18.3 %, while Germany has a weak upward movement since 2012, with an increase between 2015 and 2018 from 13.3 % to 16.9 %. Finland has an upward trend since 2000 and the United Kingdom since 2012, both with increases in 2018, reaching 15.5 % and 13.4 % respectively. Belgium reported new survey results for 2018, with a prevalence of 13.6 %, up from 10.1 % in 2013. In contrast, the three surveys in Sweden since 2015 have reported a stable prevalence, with 7.9 % in 2018." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2020), European Drug Report 2020: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
21. Synthetic Cathinones "Reflecting their use as legal replacements for cocaine, amphetamine and other controlled stimulants, there were more than 23 000 seizures of synthetic cathinones reported from across Europe in 2016 (Figure 3). These account for almost one-third of the total number of seizures of new substances over the year, and amounted to almost 1.9 tonnes, making synthetic cathinones the most commonly seized new psychoactive substances by quantity in 2016. The EMCDDA is currently monitoring 130 of these substances, including 14 that were reported for the first time in 2016 and 12 during 2017. Synthetic cathinones are generally found in powder form. The five most commonly seized cathinones in 2016 were alpha-PVP, 4-chloromethcathinone, 3-chloromethcathinone, 4-methyl-N,N-dimethylcathinone and 3-methylmethcathinone. The top five cathinones detected in powders were 4 chloromethcathinone (890 kg), 4-chloroethcathinone (247 kg), N-ethylhexedrone (186 kg), 3-methylmethcathinone (126 kg) and mexedrone (50 kg). In recent years, there have been indications of increasing interest in making synthetic cathinones in Europe, including seizures of precursors, equipment and illicit laboratories used to make mephedrone (which is now under international control), as well as 4-chloromethcathinone and 3-chloromethcathinone." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
22. New Benzodiazepines "Reflecting consumer demand, the market in new benzodiazepines appears to have grown over the past few years. The EMCDDA is currently monitoring 23 of these substances, including six that were reported for the first time in 2016 and three during 2017. While the overall number of seizures reported by law enforcement during 2016 decreased compared with 2015, the quantity reported increased. More than half a million tablets containing new benzodiazepines such as diclazepam, etizolam, flubromazolam, flunitrazolam and fonazepam were reported during 2016 — which was about 70 % more than in 2015. Some of these new benzodiazepines were sold as tablets, capsules or powders under their own names. In other cases, they were used to make fake versions of commonly prescribed benzodiazepine medicines, such as diazepam and alprazolam, and sold directly on the illicit drug market." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
23. Synthetic Opioids, Including Fentanyl "With a total of 38 different opioids reported, the number of synthetic opioids has grown rapidly in Europe since the first substance was reported in 2009. In fact, most of these substances have been reported for the first time during the past two years, with 9 reported in 2016 and 13 during 2017. Although they play a small overall role in Europe’s drug market, many of the new opioids are highly potent substances that pose a risk of life-threatening poisoning because an overdose can cause respiratory depression (slowing down of breathing), which can lead to respiratory arrest (stopping breathing) and death. The public health importance of this risk is reflected in the fact that most deaths involving illicit opioid use are caused by respiratory depression (White and Irvine, 1999). Of particular concern are the new fentanils. These substances currently dominate this group, with a total of 28 reported since they first appeared in 2012. "Reflecting their small share of the market as well as their high potency, new opioids accounted for only around 2% of the total number of seizures of new substances and about 0.2% of the total quantity reported to the EU Early Warning System during 2016. New opioids are found mainly in powders but also in tablets and, since 2014, liquids. For the most part, seizures are dominated by fentanils. There were around 1,600 seizures of new opioids reported by law enforcement during 2016, of which 70% were related to fentanils. These included 7.7 kg of powders (of which 60% contained fentanils), approximately 23,000 tablets (of which 13% contained fentanils) and 4.5 litres of liquids (of which fentanils accounted for 96% of the total). Some of these liquids are from seizures made by police and customs of nasal sprays, which appear to be growing in popularity as a way of using these substances." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
24. Growth of Fentanyl on the Illegal Market "Alongside their legitimate uses as medicines and in research, the fentanils also have a long history of illicit use as replacements for heroin and other controlled opioids. Between 1979 and 1988, more than 10 fentanils that had been made in illicit laboratories were detected on the drug market in the United States (Henderson, 1991). The first was alpha-methylfentanyl, followed by substances such as 3-methylfentanyl and 4-fluorofentanyl. Typically, they were sold as heroin or ‘synthetic heroin’. Together, these substances were involved in more than 100 deaths, mostly in the state of California. Later, in the mid-2000s, illicitly manufactured fentanyl was sold as heroin or in mixtures with heroin, and was responsible for outbreaks of overdoses that involved hundreds of deaths in the eastern United States (Schumann et al., 2008). It appears that, with the exception of Estonia, where 3-methylfentanyl and fentanyl were responsible for an epidemic of fatal poisonings during this time, these substances caused limited problems elsewhere in Europe (Berens et al., 1996; de Boer et al., 2003; Fritschi and Klein, 1995; Kronstrand et al., 1997; Ojanperä et al., 2008; Poortman-van der Meer and Huizer, 1996). "Over the past few years, there has been a large increase in the availability of fentanils in the United States, Canada and Europe (Gladden et al., 2016; US CDC, 2015). This has been driven by the opioid epidemics in North America, interest in selling these substances in Europe and broader changes in the illicit drug market." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
25. Fentanyl in the Context of New Psychoactive Substances "Since 2012, a total of 28 new fentanils have been identified on Europe’s drug market. This includes eight substances that were reported for the first time in 2016 and 10 during 2017. During this period, there has also been a large increase in seizures reported by customs at international borders and police at street-level (Figure 4) (see also ‘Reducing the risk of occupational exposure to fentanils’, page 11). While the picture differs widely across Europe, 23 countries have reported detections of one or more of these substances (Figure 5) (2). Reports to the EMCDDA of fatal poisonings have also increased substantially from some countries (EMCDDA, 2016a; EMCDDA, 2017a,b,c,d,e,f,g; EMCDDA, 2018a,b). "It appears that most shipments of new fentanils coming into Europe originate from companies based in China. Production in illicit laboratories, including in Europe, has also been reported occasionally. Typically, production of fentanyl and other fentanils is relatively straightforward, which adds to the challenges in responding to these substances. "Like other new substances, one of the reasons behind the increase in these fentanils is that they are not controlled under the United Nations drug control conventions. This means that in many countries they can be manufactured and traded relatively freely and openly — a situation which has been exploited by entrepreneurs and crime groups using companies based in China to make the substances. The fentanils are typically shipped to Europe by express mail services and courier services. From here, they are then sold as ‘legal’ replacements for illicit opioids on the surface web and on the darknet. Unknown to users, they are also sold as heroin or mixed with heroin and other illicit opioids. Occasionally they have also been used to make fake medicines and, less commonly, sold as cocaine (see ‘Fentanils in fake medicines and cocaine’, page 12). "Fentanils have been found in a variety of physical and dosage forms in Europe. The most common form is powders, but they have also been detected in liquids and tablets. Depending on the circumstances, seizures of powders have ranged from milligram to kilogram quantities. They may be relatively pure, especially when seized coming into the European Union. They may also be mixed with one or more substances. In the latter case, these include commonly used cutting agents (such as mannitol, lactose and paracetamol), as well as heroin and other fentanils/opioids. To a much smaller degree, other drugs, such as cocaine and other stimulants, have also been detected in mixtures with fentanils in Europe. During 2016, more than 4.6 kg of powder containing fentanils was reported, while almost 4.5 litres of liquid and around 2 900 tablets were also reported. Less commonly, fentanils have also been found in blotters and plant material. In these cases, there may be no indication that they contain fentanils, which could pose a risk of poisoning to people who use them." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
26. Synthetic Cannabinoids "Synthetic cannabinoids, also known as synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists, are a group of drugs that mimic the effects of a substance found in cannabis called tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC is responsible for many of the psychoactive effects of cannabis which give that feeling of being ‘stoned’ or ‘high’ (Gaoni and Mechoulam, 1964; Huestis et al., 2001; Pertwee, 2005a; Pertwee, 2014). These effects are caused by activating a receptor in the brain called the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1 receptor) (Huestis et al., 2001; Pertwee, 2014). The receptor is part of a signalling system in the body called the endocannabinoid system, which helps regulate, among other things, behaviour, mood, pain, appetite, sleep and the immune system (Pertwee, 2015). "Similar to the fentanils, the synthetic cannabinoids were originally developed by scientists to study the body, provide insights into disease and help develop new medicines (Pertwee, 2005b; Reggio, 2009). Around the mid-2000s, they began to appear in Europe in products called ‘Spice’ that were sold as ‘legal’ replacements to cannabis. In these products, powders containing synthetic cannabinoids were mixed with plant material which could then be smoked as cigarettes (‘joints’) (Auwärter et al., 2009; EMCDDA, 2009; Jack, 2009). Since then, 179 cannabinoids have been identified on the drug market in hundreds of different products (Figure 7). The products are commonly referred to as ‘herbal smoking mixtures’, ‘Spice’, ‘K2’, ‘synthetic cannabis’ and ‘synthetic marijuana’. Most of the synthetic cannabinoid powders are made in China, with the final products made in Europe. "Because synthetic cannabinoids work in a similar way to THC, many of their effects are similar to those of cannabis (Auwärter et al., 2009). Most prominently, they are able to create the feeling of being ‘stoned’. This includes relaxation, euphoria, lethargy, depersonalisation, distorted perception of time, impaired motor performance, hallucinations, paranoia, confusion, fear, anxiety, dry mouth, bloodshot eyes, tachycardia (an abnormally fast heart rate), nausea and vomiting. In some cases, these effects appear to be much more pronounced and severe than those produced by cannabis (Ford et al., 2017; Zaurova et al., 2016)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
27. Effects of Synthetic Cannabinoids More Severe and Can Include Fatal Poisoning "The reasons for the more pronounced psychoactive effects and severe and fatal poisoning seen with synthetic cannabinoids are not particularly well understood, but at least two factors are likely to be important: the high potency of the substances and the unintentionally high doses that users are exposed to. "Firstly, studies have found that many of the cannabinoids sold on the drug market are much more potent than THC (behaving as so-called ‘full agonists’). This means that even at very small doses they can activate the CB1 receptor much more strongly than THC (Banister et al., 2016; Ford et al., 2017; Longworth et al., 2017a,b; Reggio, 2009; Tai and Fantegrossi, 2017). It is worth noting that little is known about the effects of synthetic cannabinoids on other signalling systems in the body, which may also explain some of the effects of these substances. "Secondly, the process for mixing the synthetic cannabinoids with the plant material to make smoking mixtures (which are the most common way of using these substances) can lead to dangerous amounts of the substances in the products. This is because producers have to guess the amount of cannabinoids to add, while the mixing process makes it difficult to dilute the cannabinoids sufficiently and distribute them consistently throughout the plant material. This can result both in products that contain toxic amounts of the substances in general, as well as in products where the cannabinoids are clumped together, forming highly concentrated pockets among the plant material (Figure 9) (Ernst et al., 2017; Frinculescu et al., 2017; Langer et al., 2014, 2016; Moosmann et al., 2015; Schäper, 2016). These issues are made worse because the products are smoked (or vaped), allowing the substances to be rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and to reach the brain, where they cause many of their effects. "The combination of these two factors makes it difficult for users to control the dose that they are exposed to. This can lead them to unintentionally administer a toxic dose (see ‘Other risks related to synthetic cannabinoids and smoking mixtures’, page 18). Accounts from patients and people who witness poisonings suggest that in some cases a small number of puffs from a joint have been sufficient to cause severe and fatal poisoning." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2018), Fentanils and synthetic cannabinoids: driving greater complexity into the drug situation. An update from the EU Early Warning System (June 2018), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
28. MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Harm Reduction, and Dosage Information "Apart from warnings issued against dangerous and unexpected pills, dosage makes a difference. In terms of neurotoxicity, several scientific studies pointed out that, among other factors, the probability for possible neurotoxic damage in the serotonergic system grows with the amount of MDMA being consumed. Therefore, most pill-testing projects inform potential consumers that they should not, if at all, consume more than 1,5–1,8 mg MDMA/kg bodyweight because of possible long-term damages to an important region of the brain. These messages, that are often followed by consumers of ecstasy, are only meaningful if consumers are in a position to have their pills chemically analysed. Otherwise they are unable to follow this or similar advice." Kriener, Harald, Renate Billeth, Christoph Gollner, Sophie Lachout, Paul Neubauer, Rainer Schmid. An Inventory of On-Site Pill-Testing Interventions in the EU. Lisbon, Portugal: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2001. |
29. Prevalence of Heroin and Illegal Opioid Use in the EU "The prevalence of high-risk opioid use among adults (15-64) is estimated at 0.4 % of the EU population, equivalent to 1.3 million high-risk opioid users in 2018. At national level, prevalence estimates of high-risk opioid use range from less than 1 to more than 8 users per 1 000 population aged 15-64 (Figure 27). The five most populous countries in the European Union (Germany, Spain, France, Italy, United Kingdom), account for three quarters (75 %) of this estimate. "In 2018 use of opioids was reported as the main reason for entering specialised drug treatment by 143 000 clients, or 34 % of all those entering drug treatment in Europe. Of these, more than 27 000 were first-time entrants. Primary heroin users accounted for 77 % (almost 20 000 clients) of first-time primary opioid users entering treatment, a drop of 2 200 clients or 10 % compared with the previous year. "According to the available trend data, the number of firsttime heroin clients has fallen by more than half from a peak observed in 2007. Between 2017 and 2018 the number of first-time treatment entrants for primary heroin use decreased in 18 countries out of the 29 with available data." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2020), European Drug Report 2020: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
30. Estimated Prevalence of Cocaine Use in the EU "Surveys suggest that around 18 million adults aged 15-64 in the European Union (5.4 %) have used cocaine at least once in their lifetime. Of those aged 15-34, nearly 3 million (2.4 % of this age group) are estimated to have used the drug in the last year. "Among the 27 countries that undertook a survey between 2014 and 2018, prevalence of last year cocaine use among young adults ranged from 0.2 % to 5.3 %, with eight countries reporting rates of more than 2.5 % (Figure 8). Of the 12 countries that have conducted surveys since 2017 and reported confidence intervals, five reported higher estimates than their previous survey and seven had stable estimates. "A statistical analysis of long-term trends in last year use of cocaine among young adults (15-34) is only possible for a small number of countries, among which there is some evidence of increased use. The United Kingdom has observed an upward trend since 2015, reaching 5.3 % in 2018. Upward trends have also been reported by France (2000 to 2017), reaching 3.2 %, and by Finland (2010 to 2018), reaching 1.5 %. Not all trends are upward. Spain has reported a decline in use since 2008, though prevalence in the last two years has been stable, and prevalence in Norway has remained largely stable since 2013. Without notable trends, increases in prevalence between the last two surveys were reported for 2018 by Germany (2.4 % as opposed to 1.2 % in 2015) and Estonia (2.8 % as opposed to 1.3 % in 2008). Similarly, increases were reported for 2017 by Denmark (3.9 % as opposed to 2.4 % in 2013) and Sweden (2.5 % as opposed to 1.2 % in 2013). "Analysis of municipal wastewater for cocaine residues carried out in a multi-city study complements, but is not directly comparable to, the results from population surveys. A 2019 analysis found the highest mass loads of benzoylecgonine — the main metabolite of cocaine "The most recent data indicate that cocaine is becoming more common in eastern European cities, although detection levels remain low (see Figure 9). Of the 45 cities that have data for 2018 and 2019, 27 reported an increase, 10 a stable situation and 8 a decrease. Increasing longer term trends are observable for most of the 14 cities with data covering the 2011 to 2019 period." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2020), European Drug Report 2020: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
31. Estimated Prevalence of Illegal Substance Use by People Aged 15-64 in Several EU Nations Datatable: Estimated Prevalence of Illegal Substance Use by People Aged 15-64 in Several EU Nations European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Statistical Bulletin 2013. Table GPS-2 General Population Surveys: Data Tables" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2013). |
32. Ninety Officially Sanctioned Drug Consumption Rooms in Operation in the EU and Switzerland "In terms of the historical development of this intervention, the first supervised drug consumption room was opened in Berne, Switzerland in June 1986. Further facilities of this type were established in subsequent years in Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Norway, Luxembourg, Denmark, Greece and France. A total of 78 official drug consumption facilities currently operate in seven EMCDDA reporting countries, following the opening of the first two drug consumption facilities in the framework of a 6-year trial in France in 2016. There are also 12 facilities in Switzerland (see ‘Facts and figures’)." "Perspectives On Drugs: Drug consumption rooms: an overview of provision and evidence," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, June 2017. |
33. MDMA (Ecstasy) and Harm Reduction "In the context of new synthetic drugs there are some well-established approaches to reduce harm such as handing out condoms for free or giving out drinking water to reduce or stabilise body temperature and to avoid heatstroke. In addition, there are possible harms in the party scene that can be countered by pill-testing projects only. All pill-testing projects inform consumers about very dangerous and unexpected pills on site, through magazines and posters or through the Internet." Kriener, Harald, Renate Billeth, Christoph Gollner, Sophie Lachout, Paul Neubauer, Rainer Schmid, "An Inventory of On-Site Pill-Testing Interventions in the EU" (Lisbon, Portugal: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2001), p. 12. |
34. International Comparisons of Cocaine Prevalence "Compared with some other parts of the world for which reliable data exist, the estimated last year prevalence of cocaine use among young adults in Europe (2.1%) is below the levels reported for young adults in Australia (4.8 %) and the United States (4.0% among 16- to 34-year-olds), but close to that reported for Canada (1.8%). Two European countries, Spain (4.4%) and the United Kingdom (4.2%), report figures similar to those of Australia and the United States (Figure 9)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 63. |
35. Estimated Prevalence of Amphetamine and Methamphetamine Use in the EU "It is estimated that 12.3 million adults in the European Union (aged 15-64), or 3.7% of this age group, have used amphetamines at least once in their lifetime. Figures from the 26 countries that report a survey between 2014 and 2018 suggest that 1.4 million (1.2%) young adults (aged 15-34) used amphetamines during the last year, with national prevalence estimates ranging from zero in Portugal to 3% in Finland (Figure 13). The available data suggest that over the longer term, prevalence levels have been relatively stable in most countries. Of the countries that have provided new survey results since 2017 and reported confidence intervals, two reported higher estimates than in the previous comparable survey, seven reported a stable trend and one a lower estimate. "A statistical analysis of trends in last year prevalence of use of amphetamines in young adults is only possible in a small number of countries and variations in patterns exist. Longterm downward trends are observable in Denmark, Spain and the United Kingdom (Figure 13). "Recent surveys in Czechia found prevalence levels of less than 1 %, trending downwards. In contrast, Norway has an upward trend since 2015, reporting 0.9% for 2018. At higher levels of prevalence, Finland has a long-term upward trend reaching 3% in 2018. In their 2018 survey, the Netherlands reported the prevalence of amphetamine use as 2.7%, a decrease from 3.9% in 2017. Both Germany and Poland report increases from previous surveys. "Methamphetamine in Europe now appears in both powder and crystalline form and is consumed by injecting or smoking by various sub-groups of people who use drugs, including problem drug users and people in the ‘chemsex’ scene. "Analysis of municipal wastewater carried out in 2019 found that mass loads of amphetamine varied considerably across Europe, with the highest levels reported in cities in the north and east of Europe (Figure 14). Amphetamine was found at much lower levels in most cities in the south of Europe. "Of the 41 cities that have data for 2018 and 2019, 21 reported an increase, 9 a stable situation and 11 a decrease. Overall, the results from 11 cities with data from 2011 to 2019 showed a diverse picture, with increasing trends observed in most cities. "Wastewater analysis suggests that use of methamphetamine, generally low and historically concentrated in Czechia and Slovakia, now appears to be also present in other European countries (Figure 15). In 2018 and 2019, of the 42 cities that have data on methamphetamine in wastewater, 17 reported an increase, 16 a stable situation and 9 a decrease." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2020), European Drug Report 2020: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
36. Estimated Prevalence of MDMA (Ecstasy) Use in the EU "MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine) is commonly used in the form of ecstasy tablets, but is also increasingly available as crystals and powders; tablets are usually swallowed, but in powder form the drug is also snorted (nasal insufflation). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2016), European Drug Report 2016: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, pp. 42-43. |
37. Per Capita Alcohol Consumption in the EU "The European Union (EU) is the region with the highest alcohol consumption in the world: in 2009, average adult (aged 15+ years) alcohol consumption in the EU was 12.5 litres of pure alcohol – 27g of pure alcohol or nearly three drinks a day, more than double the world average. Although there are many individual country differences, alcohol consumption in the EU as a whole has continued at a stable level over the past decade." "Introduction," by Lars Møller and Peter Anderson, published in Alcohol in the European Union: Consumption, Harm and Policy Approaches (Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, March 2012), p. 1. |
38. Opioids Do Not Have Potential To Cause Malformations To An Embryo Or Fetus "It is important to note that, contrary to alcohol, benzodiazepines and nicotine, opioids do not have teratogenic potential (3). Thus, special attention needs to be paid to dependence and abuse of legal substances and prescription drugs that can have severe consequences for the foetus and newborn, such as foetal developmental disorders or sudden infant death syndrome (Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders Center for Excellence, 2013; McDonnell-Naughton et al., 2012)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Pregnancy and opioid use: strategies for treatment," EMCDDA Papers, Publications Office of the European Union: Luxembourg, 2014. |
39. European Union - Data - 12-3-12 (Alcohol Consumption Trends in the EU) "Although the European per capita consumption of alcohol has remained nearly constant over the past decade, this apparent steadiness hides two opposing trends. The Nordic countries and eastern Europe have seen an increase in adult per capita consumption, whereas western and southern Europe have experienced a decrease. Beer is the most prominent alcoholic beverage in almost all regions. Only in southern Europe does wine remain the most frequently consumed alcoholic drink, but even in southern Europe, the consumption of wine has been decreasing at a high rate whereas beer consumption is only rising slightly. This decrease in wine intake is mainly responsible for the strong downward trend in total alcohol consumption in southern Europe. The Nordic countries are moving in the opposite direction to the southern countries, although the changes are not as marked: wine consumption has steadily increased in the past decade while beer has lost some of its popularity. Southern and eastern Europe are the two regions that show the largest amount of change in their total alcohol consumption, but these changes tend to cancel each other out and are not reflected in the EU average." "Societal burden of alcohol," by Kevin D Shield, Tara Kehoe, Gerrit Gmel, Maximilien X Rehm and Jürgen Rehm, published in Alcohol in the European Union: Consumption, Harm and Policy Approaches (Copenhagen, Denmark: World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe, March 2012), p. 15. |
40. Estimated Prevalence of Use of New Psychoactive Substances and 'Legal Highs' in the EU "Insights into the use of new drugs are provided by the 2014 Flash Eurobarometer on young people and drugs, a telephone survey of 13,128 young adults aged 15–24 in the 28 EU Member States. Although primarily an attitudinal survey, the Eurobarometer includes a question on the use of ‘substances that imitate the effects of illicit drugs’. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2016), European Drug Report 2016: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, p. 47. |
41. Prevalence of Mephedrone and Synthetic Cathinone Use in the EU "Synthetic cathinones, such as mephedrone and MPDV, have now carved a space in the illicit stimulants market in some countries. The limited information available suggests that prevalence levels remain low. Repeat surveys that include cathinones are only available for the United Kingdom (England and Wales). In the most recent survey (2012/13), last year use of mephedrone among adults aged 16 to 59 was estimated at 0.5 %, a decrease from 1.1 % in 2011/12 and 1.4 % in 2010/11. Results from a non-representative survey of regular clubbers in the United Kingdom also show a decrease in last year mephedrone use (from 19.5 % in 2011 to 13.8 % in 2012). European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European Drug Report 2014: Trends and Developments" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2014), p. 43. |
42. Prevalence of Substance Use Among Drivers in EU "Roadside surveys conducted in 13 countries across Europe, in which blood or oral fluid samples from 50 000 drivers were analysed, revealed that alcohol was present in 3.48 %, illicit drugs in 1.90 %, medicines in 1.36 %, combinations of drugs or medicines in 0.39 % and alcohol combined with drugs or medicines in 0.37 %. However, there were large differences among the mean values in the regions of northern, eastern, southern and western Europe. Although the absolute numbers were quite low, the prevalence of alcohol, cocaine, cannabis and combined substance use was higher in southern Europe, and to some extent in western Europe, than in the other two regions, whereas medicinal opioids and ‘z-drugs’, such as zopiclone and zolpidem, were detected more in northern Europe." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Driving Under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines in Europe — findings from the DRUID project" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012), doi: 10.2810/74023, p. 6. |
43. Trends and Policies Regarding Drug Supply and Possession Offenses in the EU, 2016
"Member States take measures to prevent the supply of illicit drugs under three United Nations Conventions, which provide an international framework for control of production, trade and possession of over 240 psychoactive substances. Each country is obliged to treat drug trafficking as a criminal offence, but the penalties written in the law vary between states. In some countries, drug supply offences may be subject to a single wide penalty range, while other countries differentiate between minor and major supply offences with corresponding penalty ranges. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2016), European Drug Report 2016: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, pp. 33-34. |
44. Trends in Drug Supply and Possession Offenses in the EU, 2012 "There has been no major shift in the balance between drug law offences related to use and those related to supply compared with previous years. In most (22) European countries, offences related to drug use or possession for use continued to comprise the majority of drug law offences in 2010, with Spain, France, Hungary, Austria and Turkey reporting the highest proportions (85–93%) (32). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, pp. 35-36. |
45. Prevalence of Substance Use Among Injured Drivers "Studies of hospitalised, seriously injured car drivers were conducted in six countries, and studies of car drivers killed in accidents took place in four countries. Among the injured or killed drivers, the most commonly consumed substance was alcohol alone, followed by alcohol combined with another substance. The use of illicit drugs alone was not frequently detected. After alcohol, the most frequently found substance among injured drivers was tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) followed by benzodiazepines, whereas, among drivers killed in accidents, it was benzodiazepines." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Driving Under the Influence of Drugs, Alcohol and Medicines in Europe — findings from the DRUID project" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012), doi: 10.2810/74023, p. 6. |
46. Cannabis Offenses in the EU "Cannabis continues to be the illicit drug most often mentioned in reported drug law offences in Europe (34). In the majority of European countries, offences involving cannabis accounted for between 50% and 90% of reported drug law offences in 2010. Offences related to other drugs exceeded those related to cannabis in only four countries: the Czech Republic and Latvia with methamphetamine (54% and 34%); and Lithuania and Malta with heroin (34% and 30%). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 36. |
47. Cannabis Offenses in the EU, 1999-2004 "In 19992004, the number of 'reports' of drug law offences involving cannabis increased overall in the majority of reporting countries, while decreases were evident in Italy and Slovenia. Over the same period, the proportion of drug offences involving cannabis increased in Germany, Spain, France, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Portugal, the United Kingdom and Bulgaria, while it remained stable overall in Ireland and the Netherlands, and decreased in Belgium, Italy, Austria, Slovenia and Sweden. Although in all reporting countries (except in the Czech Republic and Bulgaria and for a few years in Belgium) cannabis is more predominant in offences for use/possession than in other drug law offences, the proportion of use-related offences involving cannabis has decreased since 1999 in several countries -- namely Italy, Cyprus (200204), Austria, Slovenia and Turkey (200204) -- and has fallen over the last year (200304) in most reporting countries, possibly indicating a reduced targeting of cannabis users by law enforcement agencies in these countries." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 24. |
48. International Comparison of Homicide Rates "With averages of over 25 victims per 100,000 population, Southern Africa and Central America are the sub-regions with the highest homicide rates on record, followed by South America, Middle Africa and the Caribbean, with average rates of between 16 and 23 homicides per 100,000 population (see figure 1.3). This sub-regional picture has hardly changed since 2011. Likewise, as discussed later in this chapter, the fact that homicide rates are significantly higher in the Americas in comparison to other regions is not a new phenomenon. Indeed, according to available time series since 1955, the Americas have consistently experienced homicide levels five to eight times higher than those in Europe or Asia (see figure 1.17, page 35). UNODC Global Study on Homicide 2013 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 14.IV.1), p. 20. |
49. European Homicide Rates "Countries in Europe have some of the lowest homicide rates in the world, but sub-national data can paint some interesting pictures within those countries and in certain trans-border regions (see map 1.4). The most significant differences lie in the west-to-east geographical distribution of homicide, as homicide rates increase eastwards across Europe, and there are also higher homicide rates in certain parts of Northern Europe. Available data indicate that this phenomenon is associated with patterns of alcohol consumption (see chapter 3), among other factors. UNODC Global Study on Homicide 2013 (United Nations publication, Sales No. 14.IV.1), p. 27. |
50. Public Expenditure on Drug Law Offenders in Prison in the European Union "Within this framework, the EMCDDA has calculated a range of estimates of public expenditures on drug-law offenders in prison. The low estimate considers only those prisoners who have been sentenced for a drug-law offence. The high estimate also includes pre-trial prisoners who may be sentenced for a drug-law offence (assuming that the proportion of drug-law offenders among pre-trial prisoners is identical to that of drug-law offenders among sentenced prisoners). Applying these low and high estimates, between 2000 and 2010, public expenditure on drug-law offenders in 22 European countries is estimated to have been within the range of 0.03 %–0.05 % of GDP. With the exception of the first two years, when the number of countries with available information was limited, these proportions of GDP remained stable. When applying these percentages to the whole EU for the year 2010, public expenditure on drug-law offenders in prison is estimated to have been within the range of EUR 3.7 billion to EUR 5.9 billion. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Estimating public expenditure on drug-law offenders in prison in Europe," EMCDDA Papers, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, February 2014, p. 14. |
51. Median Prison Population Rate and Number of People Serving Time in Prisons in the Europe "2. The median European Prison Population Rate [PPR] was 124.0 inmates per 100 000 inhabitants. Aebi, M. F., Tiago, M. M. & Burkhardt, C. (Dec. 23, 2015). SPACE I – Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics: Prison populations. Survey 2014. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, p. 2. |
52. People Serving Time in Prison in the EU for Drug Offenses "Inmates were sentenced mainly for the following types of criminal offences: drug offences (18%), theft (16%), robbery (14%), and homicide (12%)." Aebi, M.F. & Delgrande, N. (2015). SPACE I – Council of Europe Annual Penal Statistics: Prison populations. Survey 2013. Strasbourg: Council of Europe, p. 2. |
53. Total Prison Population and Drug-Law Offenders in Prison in Several European Union Nations
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Estimating public expenditure on drug-law offenders in prison in Europe," EMCDDA Papers, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, February 2014, p. 5, Table 1. |
54. Heroin Offenses in the EU, Trends 1999-2004 "Over the same five-year period, the number of 'reports' and/or the proportion of drug law offences involving heroin decreased in the majority of reporting countries, except Belgium, Austria, Slovenia and Sweden, which reported upward trends in the number of 'reports' involving heroin and/or the proportion of drug offences that involved heroin. "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 24. |
55. European Union - 6-21-11 (Cocaine Smuggling Routes and Transshipment Countries) "Increasing amounts of Latin American cocaine are now also being sent to Europe (see Figure 2.2). Most consignments are smuggled in container vessels and dispatched directly to ports in Spain (Barcelona), Portugal (Lisbon), the Netherlands (Rotterdam), and Belgium (Antwerp).9 The growing emphasis on Europe reflects higher street prices than those in the United States10 (see Table 2.4) and shifting consumer demand patterns toward this particular narcotic (and derivates, such as crack).11 Based on prevalence rates in 2008, the United States accounted for roughly 44 percent of global cocaine consumption, Europe 25 percent. In the latter case, the UK constitutes the largest cocaine market on the continent in absolute terms, with usage among the general population standing at 1.2 million in 2009.12 Chalk, Peter, "The Latin American Drug Trade: Scope, Dimensions, Impact, and Response," RAND Corporation for the the United States Air Force (Santa Monica, CA: 2011), pp. 6-9. |
56. Consequences of Cocaine Transshipping in Guinea-Bissau "Demand for cocaine in Europe, combined with the stepping up of policing in the Caribbean has simply shifted transit routes to West Africa – the balloon effect. Guinea Bissau, already with weak governance, endemic poverty and negligible police infrastructure, has been particularly affected - with serious consequences for one of the most underdeveloped countries on Earth. "The War on Drugs: Undermining international development and security, increasing conflict" from the "Count the Costs: 50 Years of the War on Drugs," Transform Drug Policy Foundation (United Kingdom, 2011), p. 10. |
57. European Union - Data - Sources of Heroin Trafficked to European Union (Sources of Heroin Trafficked to European Union) "Heroin is the most common opioid on the European drug market. Imported heroin has historically been available in Europe in two forms: the more common is brown heroin (its chemical base form), originating mainly from Afghanistan. Far less common is white heroin (a salt form), which historically came from South-East Asia, but now may also be produced in Afghanistan or in neighbouring countries. Other opioids seized by law enforcement agencies in European countries in 2014 included opium and the medicines morphine, methadone, buprenorphine, tramadol and fentanyl. Some medicinal opioids may have been diverted from pharmaceutical supplies, while others are manufactured specifically for the illicit market. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2016), European Drug Report 2016: Trends and Developments, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, p. 22. |
58. European Union - Data - Problem Drug Use in the EU Problem Drug Use and Its Correlates (Problem Drug Use in the EU) "Drug use is associated, both directly and indirectly with a range of negative health and social consequences. Problems are disproportionately found among long-term users of opioids, some forms of stimulants and among those who inject. The use of opioid drugs in particular is associated with drug overdose deaths, and the scale of this problem is illustrated by the fact that, over the last decade, Europe has experienced about one overdose death every hour. However, it is also important to remember that chronic drug users are also at a far greater risk of dying from other causes, including organic diseases, suicide, accidents and trauma. Regardless of the substance used, drug injecting continues to be an important vector for the transmission of infectious diseases, including HIV and hepatitis C, with new HIV outbreaks recently experienced by some European countries underlining the importance of maintaining effective public health responses in this area." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 79. |
59. Problem Opioid Use in the EU, 1995-2004 "Reports from some countries, supported by other indicator data, suggest that problem opioid use continued to increase during the latter half of the 1990s (Figure 9) but appears to have stabilised or declined somewhat in more recent years. Repeated estimates on problem opioid use for the period between 2000 and 2004 are available from seven countries (the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Spain, Ireland, Italy, Austria): four countries (the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Spain) have recorded a decrease in problem opioid use, while one reported an increase (Austria -- although this is difficult to interpret as the data collection system changed during this period). Evidence from people entering treatment for the first time suggests that the incidence of problem opioid use may in general be slowly declining; therefore in the near future a decline in prevalence is to be expected." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 69. |
60. HIV Related to Injection Drug Use in the EU "Data on reported newly diagnosed cases related to injecting drug use for 2010 suggest that, overall, infection rates are still falling in the European Union, following a peak in 2001–02. Of the five countries reporting the highest rates of newly diagnosed infections among injecting drug users between 2005 and 2010, Spain and Portugal continued their downward trend, while, among the others, only Latvia reported a small increase (Figure 17) (108). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 80. |
61. Prevalence of HIV Among IDUs in the EU "Prevalence data from samples of drug injectors are available for 25 European countries over the period 2005–10 (109), and although sampling differences mean this information needs to be carefully interpreted, it does provide a complementary data source. In 17 of these countries, HIV prevalence estimates remained unchanged. In seven (Germany, Spain, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Portugal, Norway), HIV prevalence data showed a decrease. Only one country (Bulgaria) reported increasing HIV prevalence: in the capital city, Sofia, consistent with the increase in cases of newly diagnosed infections. The increases in HIV transmission in Greece and Romania reported in 2011 were not observed in HIV prevalence or case reporting data before 2011. Possible further indications of ongoing HIV transmission were observed among small samples of young injecting drug users (aged under 25) in six countries: prevalence levels above 5 % were recorded in Estonia, France, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland, and increasing prevalence in Bulgaria, over the period 2005–10." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 80. |
62. Prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the EU "In the EU/EEA [European Union/European Economic Area], 28,038 HIV infections were diagnosed in 2011 and reported by 29 EU/EEA countries, a rate of 6.3 per 100,000 population when adjusted for reporting delay [1]. The overall rate for men was 8.7 per 100,000 population and 2.8 per 100,000 population for women. The highest rates (per 100,000 population) were observed in Estonia (27.3), Latvia (13.4), Belgium (10.7) and the United Kingdom (10.0). The lowest rates were reported by the Czech Republic (1.5) and Slovakia (0.9). Some 11% of HIV infections were reported among young people aged 15–24 years and 25% were female. The overall male-to-female ratio was 3.0 and highest in Slovakia (15.3), Hungary (11.1), Czech Republic (10.8) and Slovenia (6.9) (Figure 1)." van de Laar, MJ, and Likatavicius, G, "HIV and AIDS in the European Union, 2011," Eurosurveillance, Volume 17, Issue 48, 29 November 2012. |
63. New HIV Diagnoses in the EU by Method of Transmission "Men who have sex with men (MSM) accounted for 39% of new HIV diagnoses (n=10,885) in 2011 in the EU/EEA (38% in 2010 [2]; 35% in 2009 [3]). MSM accounted for more than 50% of the cases in nine countries and more than 30% in another eight countries. Heterosexual transmission accounted for 36% of the HIV infections (n=10,118): more than a third of those cases originated from sub-Saharan Africa countries with a generalised HIV epidemic. More than half of the heterosexually acquired HIV infections in Belgium, Sweden, United Kingdom, Ireland and Norway were reported in persons originating from sub-Saharan Africa. There were 4,384 HIV cases (16%) reported in persons from sub-Saharan Africa in total: they were over-represented in the following transmission modes, as shown in the Table: heterosexual contacts (37%) and mother-to-child transmission (46%). Only 5% (n=1,516) of HIV diagnoses were reported in injecting drug users (IDU). Injecting drug use as predominant mode of transmission was reported in only two countries: Lithuania and Iceland. IDU accounted for 25% or more of the cases in Bulgaria, Greece, Latvia and Romania. Of the remaining 297 cases with reported transmission mode, 222 (1%) were classified as due to mother-to-child transmission and 75 (0.3%) due to transfusion of blood or its products and nosocomial transmission." van de Laar, MJ, and Likatavicius, G, "HIV and AIDS in the European Union, 2011," Eurosurveillance, Volume 17, Issue 48, 29 November 2012. |
64. Prevalence and Trends in IDU-Related Hepatitis C in the EU "Viral hepatitis, in particular infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV), is highly prevalent in injecting drug users across Europe (Figure 18). HCV antibody levels among national samples of injecting drug users in 2009–10 varied from 14% to 70%, with seven of the 11 countries with national data (Greece, Italy, Cyprus, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Norway), reporting prevalence over 40% (111), a level that may indicate that injecting risks are sufficient for HIV transmission (Vickerman et al., 2010). HCV antibody prevalence levels of over 40 % were also reported in the most recent national data available for Denmark, Luxembourg and Croatia and in nine other countries providing sub-national data (2005–10). The Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovenia (all national, 2009–10) and Turkey (sub-national, 2008) report HCV prevalence of under 25% (5–24%), although infection rates at this level still constitute a significant public health problem. "Over 2005–10, declining HCV prevalence in injecting drug users at either national or sub-national level was reported in six countries, while five others observed an increase (Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Austria, Romania). Italy reported a decline at national level between 2005 and 2009 — more recent data are not available — with increases in three of the 21 regions (Abruzzo, Umbria, Valle d’Aosta)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 81. |
65. Hepatitis C Prevalence Among Young Injectors in the EU "Studies on young injectors (under 25) suggest a decline in prevalence of HCV at sub-national level in Slovakia, which may indicate falling transmission rates. Increases among young injecting drug users were reported in Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus and Austria, although sample sizes in Greece, Cyprus and Austria were small. Increasing HCV prevalence among new injecting drug users (injecting for less than two years) was reported in Greece (nationally and in one region) (112). These studies, while difficult to interpret for methodological reasons, do illustrate that many injectors continue to contract the virus early in their injecting career, suggesting that the time window for initiating HCV prevention measures may often be small." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 81. |
66. Drug Users and Homelessness in the EU "Getting homeless problem drug users into stable accommodation is the first step towards stabilisation and rehabilitation. Based on the estimated numbers of problem drug users and the proportion of homeless people among clients in treatment, there are approximately 75,600 to 123,300 homeless problem drug users in Europe. As facilities are currently available in most countries, and as some countries continue to implement new structures, the effect of these measures will depend on ensuring that homeless problem drug users can access these services." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), pp. 34-35. |
67. Homelessness and Drug Use "Abstaining from or reducing drug use, engaging with and completing education, as well as securing and sustaining employment can all be great challenges if an individual has no access to supportive structures such as stable accommodation. Eight per cent of all outpatient clients in the EU starting a new treatment episode in 2009 were living in unstable accommodation (see Figure 1 on p. 45). This ranged from 2 % in Estonia to 20 % in France, 21 % in the Czech Republic and 33 % in Luxembourg. Within this population of drug users there are those subgroups that may be vulnerable or face additional barriers obtaining appropriate accommodation, such as women and young people, or those with enduring mental health problems (Shaw and McVeigh, 2008). There are many reasons why drug users may develop severe accommodation needs (whether they are defined as homeless or inappropriately accommodated), or why homeless people may start using drugs, and such progressions are rarely due to a single factor alone (Pleace, 2008). Typical reasons for homelessness may include a combination of mental health problems, unemployment, financial difficulties, criminal behaviour, relationship problems, family breakdown and difficulties in progressing into independent living after release from an institution (e.g. prison) (UKDPC, 2008a). Conversely, high-risk behaviours such as injecting drug use are reported to be prevalent among homeless people (EMCDDA, 2003a)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "EMCDDA Insights Series No 13: Social reintegration and employment: evidence and interventions for drug users in treatment" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012), doi: 10.2810/72023, p. 37. |
68. Health Impact of Opiate Use "The first and most direct impact of opiates is on health, including heroin-related deaths. Opiates (including synthetics) account for 35% to almost 100% of all drug-related deaths in the 22 European countries that have provided data, and over 85% in 11 of those countries.69 In addition, heroin abuse by injection contributes to high rates of serious diseases such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV.70 The HIV epidemic among injecting drug users continues to develop at varying rates across Europe. In the countries of the European Union, the rates of reported newly diagnosed cases of HIV infection among injecting drug users are mostly at stable and low levels, or in decline. However, in post-soviet European countries such as Ukraine, Belarus and the Republic of Moldova, those rates increased in 2007." UNODC, World Drug Report 2010 (United Nations Publication, Sales No. E.10.XI.13), p. 59. |
69. Initiation of Drug Use While In Prison "Imprisonment forces some drug users to stop using drugs, and some will see this as an opportunity to improve their lives. For others, however, prison may be a setting for initiation into drug use or for switching from one drug to another, often due to lack of availability of the preferred drug inside prison (Fazel et al., 2006; Stöver and Weilandt, 2007) and other possible reasons (e.g. use of substances for which avoiding control measures is easier). Sometimes, this change leads to more harmful patterns of drug use (Niveau and Ritter, 2008). For example, a Belgian study carried out in 2008 found that more than one-third of drug-using prisoners had started to use an additional drug during detention, one that they were not using before entering prison, with heroin being the drug most frequently mentioned (Todts et al., 2008)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Prisons and drugs in Europe: the problem and responses" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDSI12002ENC, doi: 10.2810/73390, p. 10. |
70. Heroin-Assisted Treatment "Uniquely in the United Kingdom, methadone ampoules can also be prescribed. Historically, they have at times been a substantial part of opiate substitution treatment in the United Kingdom (e.g. around 30 % in the 1970s and approximately 10 % in the early 1990s), but they now account for approximately 2 % of all methadone prescriptions in England and Wales (Strang et al., 2007). Injectable heroin can also be prescribed in the United Kingdom to heroin addicts as an opiate treatment and has been a treatment option for over 80 years, and this has historically been important. However, over the last 30 years, this practice has become progressively rarer and now comprises less than 1 % of all opiate substitution treatment in the United Kingdom. The established method of heroin prescription in the United Kingdom has been as a ‘take-away’ supply, which is then injected in an unsupervised context. In practice, few doctors have prescribed it and few patients have received it (Metrebian et al., 2002)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. EMCDDA Insights Series No 11. New heroin-assisted treatment - Recent evidence and current practices of supervised injectable heroin treatment in Europe and beyond. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012. |
71. Drug Use in Prison "Studies carried out in 15 European countries since 2000 estimated that between 2% and 56% of prisoners have ever used any type of drug while incarcerated, with nine countries reporting levels in the range 20–40% (3). The drug most frequently used by prisoners is cannabis, followed by cocaine and heroin. Estimates of heroin use while in prison ranged from 1% to 21% of prisoners (4). The wide variation in prevalence levels between countries may reflect methodological differences in data collection and reporting. Factors such as price and availability will influence the substances used within prison, but studies suggest a tendency towards the use of depressant-type drugs such as heroin, hypnotics and sedatives or drugs with depressant effects such as cannabis. Stimulant drugs may be less popular, as the effects can be more difficult to manage, for both prisoners and prison staff, within the confined prison setting (Bullock, 2003)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Prisons and drugs in Europe: the problem and responses" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDSI12002ENC, doi: 10.2810/73390, pp. 10-11. |
72. Drug Users in Prison "Cannabis is the illicit drug with the highest reported level of lifetime prevalence among prisoners, with between 12% and 70% having tried it at some time in their lives. This reflects drug use experience in the general population, although the levels there are lower (1.6% to 33% among 15- to 64-year-olds). Levels of use of cocaine, Europe’s second most commonly reported illicit drug, both inside and outside prison, are also much higher among prisoners (lifetime prevalence of 6–53%) than among the general population (0.3–10%). Experience of amphetamines among prisoners ranges from 1% to 45%, whereas among the general population the range is from almost zero to 12%. Data on lifetime misuse of other substances (such as volatile substances, hypnotics and sedatives) are limited, and prevalence levels, among both prisoners and the general population, are usually low (EMCDDA, 2012). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Prisons and drugs in Europe: the problem and responses" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDSI12002ENC, doi: 10.2810/73390, p. 9. |
73. DRUID Project Evaluation of Oral Fluid (Saliva) Testing Devices for DUI Enforcement "Using the above model of evaluation it can be seen that the DrugWipe 5 delivers the best results for sensitivity (91%) whilst also performing very highly in terms of specificity (95%). However the margins of error (95% confidence interval) displayed in Figure 43 show that this value could vary between 78-97%, this margin of error would seem to be due to the size of the study population (135 tests performed) since the device was only tested in Finland. The strong results for this device probably reflect largely on the device?s high performing individual amphetamines test in a country with a relatively high prevalence for amphetamines. However, this overall sensitivity is still higher than the individual sensitivity of the amphetamines test for DrugWipe 5 (87%) indicating that the device was successful in screening for other drugs. Both DrugTest 5000 and Rapid STAT also performed strongly in this evaluation both for sensitivity (85% and 82% respectively) and specificity (86% and 88% respectively), which is a reflection of their generally relatively good performance for each individual substance test. The sensitivity error margins are also somewhat narrower for these two devices that were tested on a greater number of subjects (220 and 342 tests performed respectively). The OrAlert device also performs at a high level of sensitivity (81%) in this evaluation, however the specificity is somewhat lower at 70% - which is the lowest score for any of the devices. The sensitivities of the other four devices included in the study range between 64% and 32%, which are quite low values. The specificities are, however, very high, or excellent, at between 93% and 100%. The relatively large error bars for the Oratect III device and BIOSENS can be attributed to the number of successful evaluations (58 and 25 respectively)." Tom Blencowe, Anna Pehrsson and Pirjo Lillsunde, Editors. "Analytical evaluation of oral fluid screening devices and preceding selection procedures." Project Funded by the European Commission under the Transport RTD Programme of the 6th Framework Program, Project No: TREN-05-FP6TR-S07.61320-518404-DRUID (National Institute For Health and Welfare, Finland, Sept. 2010), pp. 93-94. |
74. DRUID Project Evaluation of Oral Fluid (Saliva) Testing Devices for DUI Enforcement "It is disturbing that the sensitivities of the cannabis and cocaine tests were all quite low, although further testing of the cocaine tests is desirable due to the low prevalences and the low concentrations encountered in this study. There are several countries in Central and Southern Europe for which these two substance classes are of special interest. On the other hand, it seems the sensitivities of the devices are generally better for amphetamines, a frequently encountered drug class among the DUI drivers in the Nordic countries. The suitability of the device for the intended national DUI population should also be considered, for example, PCP is rarely, if ever, found in Europe, therefore at the current time utilising a PCP test is unnecessary. Since the on-site tests are relatively expensive the suitability of all the individual substance tests incorporated in the device should be considered. Tom Blencowe, Anna Pehrsson and Pirjo Lillsunde, Editors. "Analytical evaluation of oral fluid screening devices and preceding selection procedures." Project Funded by the European Commission under the Transport RTD Programme of the 6th Framework Program, Project No: TREN-05-FP6TR-S07.61320-518404-DRUID (National Institute For Health and Welfare, Finland, Sept. 2010), p. 95. |
75. Spending on Treatment in the EU
"In terms of unit costs (per person per day) across treatment modalities, there are clear differences between the treatment types. The highest unit costs are reported for inpatient modalities. The unit cost of inpatient psychosocial treatment is estimated to range from EUR 59 to EUR 404 per patient per day, with Sweden reporting the highest unit cost for this treatment. Detoxification carried out in inpatient settings is reported to cost between EUR 110 and EUR 303, with both the highest and the lowest estimates referring to treatment centres in the United Kingdom. Oral substitution treatment with methadone is reported to cost the least of the other treatment modalities, its unit cost ranging EUR 2 to about EUR 37 per patient per day, with the highest cost estimated in Norway. Although the unit costs of opioid substitution treatment are lower than those of the three other treatment modalities, due to the widespread use of this modality, the overall annual expenditure of reporting countries on opioid substitution treatment is higher than their annual expenditure for other treatment types." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Cost and financing of drug treatment services in Europe: an exploratory study" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2011), p. 20. |
76. Availability of Substitution Treatment in the EU "Methadone is the most commonly prescribed substitution medication, received by up to two-thirds of substitution clients, while buprenorphine is prescribed to most of the remaining clients (about 20%), and is the principal substitution medication in six countries (Figure 3.7). About 6% of all substitution treatments in Europe rely on the prescription of other substances, such as slow-release morphine or diacetylmorphine (heroin). European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European Drug Report 2014: Trends and Developments" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2014), p. 58. |
77. Availability of Psychosocial Treatment in the EU "In a 2010 survey, national experts reported outpatient psychosocial treatment in Europe to be available to nearly all who seek it in 14 countries, and to the majority of those who seek it in 11 countries. In three countries (Bulgaria, Estonia, Romania) however, outpatient psychosocial treatment is estimated to be available to fewer than half of those who actively seek it. These ratings may hide considerable variation within countries and differences in the availability of specialised treatment programmes for specific target groups, such as older drug users or ethnic minorities. Some countries report difficulties in providing specialised services at a time of economic recession and budgetary cuts." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 31. |
78. Types of Opiate Substitution Treatment Available in the EU "In Europe, methadone is the most commonly prescribed opioid substitute, received by up to three quarters of substitution clients. Buprenorphine-based substitution medications are prescribed to up to a quarter of European substitution clients, and are the principal substitution medications in the Czech Republic, Greece, France, Cyprus, Finland and Sweden (103). The combination buprenorphine-naloxone is available in 15 countries. Treatments with slow-release morphine (Bulgaria, Austria, Slovenia), codeine (Germany, Cyprus) and diacetylmorphine (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Netherlands, United Kingdom) represent a small proportion of all treatments." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 76. |
79. Global Heroin Treatment Need and Overdose Deaths "More than 60 per cent of drug treatment demand in Asia and Europe relate to opiates that are, especially heroin, the most deadly drugs. Deaths due to overdose are, in any single year, as high as 5,000-8,000 in Europe, and several times this amount in the Russian Federation alone." United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, "Addiction, Crime and Insurgency: The transnational threat of Afghan opium" (Vienna, Austria: October 2009, p. 7. |
80. Opioid Substitution Treatment in the EU "Substitution treatment is the predominant treatment option for opioid users in Europe. It is generally provided in specialist outpatient settings, though in some countries it is also available in inpatient settings, and is increasingly provided in prisons (20). In addition, office-based general practitioners, often in shared-care arrangements with specialist centres, increasingly play a role. Opioid substitution is available in all EU Member States and in Croatia, Turkey and Norway (21). Overall, it is estimated that there were about 710 000 substitution treatments in Europe in 2010. Compared with 2009, the number of clients in substitution treatment increased in most countries, though Spain and Slovakia report small decreases (22)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 41. |
81. Increasing Availability of Opioid Substitution Treatment in the EU "The most common type of treatment for opioid dependence in Europe is substitution treatment, typically integrated with psychosocial care and provided at specialist outpatient centres. Sixteen countries report that it is also provided by general practitioners. In some countries, general practitioners provide this treatment in a shared-care arrangement with specialist treatment centres. The total number of opioid users receiving substitution treatment in the European Union, Croatia, Turkey and Norway is estimated at 709,000 (698 000 for EU Member States) in 2010, up from 650,000 in 2008, and about half a million in 2003(101). The vast majority of substitution treatments continue to be provided in the 15 pre?2004 EU Member States (about 95% of the total), and medium-term trends (2003–10) show continuous increases (Figure 14). The greatest increases in provision among these countries were observed in Greece, Austria and Finland, where treatment numbers almost tripled. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 75. |
82. Availability of Heroin-Assisted Treatment in the EU "A number of European countries have remained at the forefront of innovation with regards to OST and drug dependence therapies. For those who cannot or do not wish to stop injecting, a small number of European countries prescribe injectable OST medicines (including the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom) (Cook and Kanaef, 2008). The prescription of pharmaceutical heroin (diacetylmorphine) remains limited to a few European countries (Fischer et al., 2007; EMCDDA, 2009a, Table HSR-1). Despite positive findings from randomised controlled trials in several countries (indicating that diacetylmorphine is effective, safe, and cost-effective, and can reduce drug-related crime and improve patient health), only Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom include this intervention as part of the national response to drugs. Pilot programmes are currently underway in Belgium and Luxembourg (EMCDDA, 2009a, Table HSR-1)." Catherine Cook, Jamie Bridge and Gerry V. Stimson, "The diffusion of harm reduction in Europe and beyond," in EMCDDA MONOGRAPHS No. 10: Harm reduction: evidence, impacts and challenges (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2010), doi: 10.2810/29497, p. 49. |
83. Availability of Specialized Treatment Services "Treatment units or programmes that exclusively service one specified target group are a common phenomenon across the EU. Children and young people under the age of 18 are treated in specialised agencies in 23 countries; the treatment of drug users with psychiatric co-morbidity takes place in specialised agencies in 18 countries; and women-specific services are reported to exist in all countries except Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Bulgaria and Turkey. Services designed to meet the needs of immigrant drug users or of groups with specific language requirements or religious or cultural backgrounds are less common but have been reported from Belgium, Germany, Greece, Spain, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 33. |
84. Availability of Opiate Treatment "Both drug-free and substitution treatments for opioid users are available in all EU Member States, Croatia, Turkey and Norway. In most countries, treatment is conducted in outpatient settings, which can include specialised centres, general practitioners’ surgeries and low-threshold facilities. In a few countries, residential treatment plays an important role in the treatment of opioid dependence(100). A small number of countries offer heroin-assisted treatment for a selected group of chronic heroin users." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 75. |
85. Cost of Opioid Substitution Treatment "From published studies, it is possible to extract additional data on unit costs. In England, a research study, based on 401 clients from seven clinics specialising in substitution treatment, estimated the range of costs of ‘treatment as usual’ (Raistrick et al., 2007). The average total cost of treatment per patient per day was EUR 3 (EUR 3, price year 2007), excluding the cost of prescribed drugs, and EUR 6 (EUR 5, price year 2007) including prescribed drugs. The study found that among the key factors influencing treatment costs across agencies were the complexity of the case mix, the amount of drugs prescribed, and the gender mix. In England, methadone maintenance was estimated to cost between EUR 2 (EUR 2, price year 2007) and EUR 24 (EUR 22, price year 2007) per patient per day in the 15 programmes studied (Curtis, 2008), while the DTORS research team, reported specialist prescribing at EUR 18 (EUR 17, price year 2006/07) per patient per day (Davies et al., 2009). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Cost and financing of drug treatment services in Europe: an exploratory study" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2011), p. 17. |
86. Effectiveness of Treatment on Employment and Social Reintegration "The Drug Treatment Outcomes Research Study (DTORS) was one example of European research with encouraging results regarding employment (Jones et al., 2009). This study investigated drug use, health and psychosocial outcomes in 1 796 English drug users attending a range of different types of treatment service. Follow-up interviews were conducted between 3 and 13 months after baseline (soon after initial treatment entry). Regardless of the type of treatment received or drug use outcomes, employment levels increased from 9 % at baseline to 16 % at follow-up. This was accompanied by a corresponding increase in the amount of legitimate income earned per week. The proportion reporting being unemployed but actively looking for work decreased slightly from 27 % to 24 %, reflecting the increase in employment and a 5 percentage point increase in those reporting being unable to work (because of long-term sickness or disability). The proportion of participants classed as unemployed and not looking for work also fell from 24 % to 11 %. Treatment attendance was also associated with changes in housing status; the proportion staying in stable accommodation increased from 60 % to 77 % at follow-up. It should be noted that the findings of this study were weakened by use of a non-experimental design, failure to separate outcomes according to client type and treatment modality, and insufficient detail on the nature of the employment obtained." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. EMCDDA Insights Series No 13: Social reintegration and employment: evidence and interventions for drug users in treatment. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012. |
87. Safe Consumption Rooms in the EU
"A more controversial approach has been adopted in some cities in Europe, where the concept of safe consumption rooms, usually targeting drug injection, has been extended to drug inhalation. Rooms for supervised inhalation have been opened in several Dutch, German and Swiss cities (EMCDDA, 2004c). Although the supervision of consumption hygiene is a main objective of such services, there is some evidence that they could also act as a conduit to other care options; for example, monitoring of one service in Frankfurt, Germany, reported that, during a six-month evaluation period in 2004, more than 1,400 consumptions were supervised, while 332 contact talks, 40 counselling sessions and 99 referrals to other drugs services were documented." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 64. |
88. Safe Smoking Devices "Provision of specific harm-reduction programmes for crack cocaine smokers in Europe is limited. Some drug consumption facilities in three countries (Germany, Spain, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 68. |
89. Supervised Injection Facilities in the EU "Highly targeted interventions, such as supervised injecting facilities, reach specific subgroups of highly marginalised drug users and contribute to reducing morbidity and mortality. In Denmark, a mobile injection room, providing a safer injecting environment and medical supervision was established in Copenhagen in 2011 by a private organisation (131). Similar to the supervised drug consumption facilities in Germany, Spain, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Norway, the new facility in Denmark is equipped to reduce the impact of non-fatal overdoses." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 87. |
90. Availability of Syringe Exchange in the EU "Drug users, and particularly injecting drug users, are at risk of contracting infectious diseases through the sharing of drug use material and through unprotected sex. Preventing the transmission of HIV, viral hepatitis and other infections is therefore an important objective for European drug policies. For injecting opioid users, it is now well demonstrated that substitution treatment reduces reported risk behaviour, with some studies suggesting that the protective effect increases when combined with needle and syringe programmes. European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European Drug Report 2014: Trends and Developments" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2014), p. 55. |
91. Syringe Availability Through Pharmacies "The purchase of syringes through pharmacies may be a major source of contact with the health service for some injectors, and the potential to exploit this contact point as a conduit to other services clearly exists. Work to motivate and support pharmacists to develop the services they offer to drug users could form an important part of extending the role of pharmacies, but to date only France, Portugal and the United Kingdom appear to be making significant investments in this direction." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 80. |
92. SIFs Act As A Conduit To Treatment "A more controversial approach has been adopted in some cities in Europe, where the concept of safe consumption rooms, usually targeting drug injection, has been extended to drug inhalation. Rooms for supervised inhalation have been opened in several Dutch, German and Swiss cities (EMCDDA, 2004c). Although the supervision of consumption hygiene is a main objective of such services, there is some evidence that they could also act as a conduit to other care options; for example, monitoring of one service in Frankfurt, Germany, reported that, during a six-month evaluation period in 2004, more than 1,400 consumptions were supervised, while 332 contact talks, 40 counselling sessions and 99 referrals to other drugs services were documented." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 64. |
93. Pharmacy-Based Syringe Exchange "Pharmacy-based exchange schemes also help to extend the geographical coverage of the provision and, in addition, the sale of clean syringes in pharmacies may increase their availability. The sale of syringes without prescription is permitted in all EU countries except Sweden, although some pharmacists are unwilling to do so and some will even actively discourage drug users from patronising their premises." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 79. |
94. Syringe Exchange Through Pharmacies "Formally organised pharmacy syringe exchange or distribution networks exist in nine European countries (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia and the United Kingdom), although participation in the schemes varies considerably, from nearly half of pharmacies (45%) in Portugal to less than 1% in Belgium. In Northern Ireland, needle and syringe exchange is currently organised exclusively through pharmacies." "Annual Report 2006: The State of the Drugs Problem in Europe," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2006), p. 80. |
95. Naloxone and Overdose Prevention in the EU "In 2011, two thirds of European countries reported that ambulance personnel are trained in naloxone use; in just over half of these countries, naloxone is reported to be one of the standard medications carried in ambulances. Only Italy, Romania and the United Kingdom report the existence of community-based harm-reduction programmes that provide take-home naloxone to opioid users, their family members and carers. Legal barriers remain in place in other European countries, including Estonia, which has the highest drug-related mortality rate among adults (15–64) in the European Union. However, it was demonstrated in the United Kingdom that, with minimal training, healthcare professionals, including drug workers, can increase their knowledge, skills and confidence for managing an opioid overdose and administering naloxone (Mayet at al., 2011)." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe," Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012, Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775. |
96. Drug-Related Public Expenditures in the EU
"Economic analysis can be an important tool for policy evaluation, although the limited information available on drug-related public expenditure in Europe represents a major obstacle and makes comparison between countries difficult. For the 16 countries that have produced estimates since 2002, drug-related public expenditure ranges from 0.01% to 0.5% of their gross domestic product (GDP). From the information available, it appears that the largest share of drug-related public expenditure is allocated to drug supply reduction activities (Figure 4.4). European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European Drug Report 2014: Trends and Developments" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2014), p. 70. |
97. Drug Control Spending Cuts in the EU Caused by Economic Downturn "Many European countries continue to face the European Monitoring Centre on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "European Drug Report 2014: Trends and Developments" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2014), p. 70. |
98. Availability Of Illegal Substances According To Young People In The European Union "Cannabis is perceived to be the easiest illicit substance to get hold of, with around one third of ESPAD students (32 %) rating cannabis as easily obtainable. More students in the Netherlands, Denmark, Czechia, Slovenia and Slovakia than in the other ESPAD countries perceived cannabis to be easily available (rates from 45 % to 51 %). The countries with the lowest perceived availability of cannabis were Kosovo (11 %), Ukraine (13 %), Romania (16 %) and North Macedonia (19 %). Boys were more likely than girls to consider cannabis to be easily available (ESPAD average: 34 % for boys versus 30 % for girls). "Compared with cannabis, perceived availability was low for ecstasy (MDMA) (14 %), cocaine (13 %), amphetamine (10 %) and methamphetamine (8.5 %). These drugs were perceived to be more easily available in Bulgaria, Sweden and Denmark than elsewhere in Europe. "The perceived availability of ecstasy was highest (over 20 %) in Slovakia, Czechia, Slovenia and the Netherlands, whereas for cocaine it was highest in Denmark and Ireland (22 % each). The countries with the lowest perceived availability of nearly all illicit drugs were Kosovo, Georgia and Romania. "On average, 2.4 % of the ESPAD students reported having used cannabis for the first time at age 13 or younger. The highest proportions were found in France (4.5 %), Italy (4.4 %), Latvia (3.8 %), Cyprus (3.6 %) and Estonia (3.5 %). Rates of early onset of amphetamine/methamphetamine use were lower (ESPAD average: 0.5 %), with the highest proportion in Bulgaria (1.8 %). Boys were more likely than girls to have used cannabis or amphetamine/ methamphetamine at age 13 or younger. Similar results were found for early onset of ecstasy and cocaine use. "The average prevalence of lifetime use of illicit drugs was 17 %, with considerable variation across ESPAD countries. It should be noted that this mainly relates to cannabis use (average lifetime prevalence of 16 %). The highest proportions of students reporting lifetime use of any illicit drug were found in Czechia (29 %), Italy (28 %), Latvia (27 %) and Slovakia (25 %). Particularly low levels (10 % or less) of lifetime illicit drug use were noted in Kosovo, Iceland, North Macedonia, Ukraine, Serbia, Sweden, Norway, Greece and Romania." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
99. Substance Use By Young People In The European Union "Considering the ESPAD average, the lifetime prevalence of illicit drug use increased from 1995 to 2011 and has declined since then. "Cannabis was the most widely used illicit drug in all ESPAD countries. On average, 16 % of students had used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. The countries with the highest prevalence of cannabis use were Czechia (28 %), Italy (27 %) and Latvia (26 %). The lowest levels of cannabis use (2.9-7.3 %) were reported in Kosovo, North Macedonia, Iceland and Serbia. On average, boys reported cannabis use to a larger extent than girls (18 % versus 13 %). This was the case in all countries except Bulgaria, Slovakia, Malta, the Netherlands and Czechia. "Among all students who had used cannabis in the last 12 months (13 % of the total), the drug was used on average on about 10 occasions (9.9). In France, Italy, Serbia, Austria and Cyprus, cannabis was used once a month on average (12 or more occasions). The lowest average frequency of cannabis use was found in the Faroes (4.4 occasions). Overall, boys reported a higher frequency of cannabis use than girls. "Overall, 7.1 % of the students had used cannabis in the last 30 days. A high variability was found among ESPAD countries, with the maximum rate observed in Italy (15 %) and the minimum in Kosovo (1.4 %). More boys than girls reported cannabis use in the last 30 days (boys 8.5 % versus girls 5.8 % on average), with statistically significant gender differences found in more than two thirds of ESPAD countries. "To estimate the risk of cannabis-related problems, a core module, the CAST (Cannabis Abuse Screening Test) scale, was included in the ESPAD questionnaire. The prevalence of high-risk cannabis users (see the methodology section for a definition) ranged from 1.4 % to 7.3 % across countries, with an average of 4.0 %. Overall, the prevalence of high-risk cannabis users was higher among boys than girls (4.7 % versus 3.3 %). At the country level, statistically significant gender differences with higher rates among boys were found in 16 ESPAD countries. "Trends in cannabis use indicate a general increase in both lifetime and last-30-day use between 1995 and 2019, from 11 % to 16 % and from 4.1 % to 7.4 %, respectively. Both prevalence rates reached their highest levels in 2011, with lifetime use slightly decreasing thereafter and current use levelling off. "On average, 1-2 % of the ESPAD students had ever used an illicit drug other than cannabis at least once. After cannabis, the most widely used illicit drugs were ecstasy (MDMA), LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) or other hallucinogens, cocaine and amphetamine. Lifetime prevalence rates for methamphetamine, crack, heroin and GHB (gammahydroxybutyrate) were lower than those for the other illicit drugs (about 1.0 % on average). At the country level, higher rates of lifetime use were found in Estonia and Latvia (lifetime use of ecstasy, LSD or other hallucinogens of about 5.0 %)." ESPAD Group (2020), ESPAD Report 2019: Results from the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs, EMCDDA Joint Publications, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. |
100. European Union - 6-26-10
"The current EU drugs strategy (2005–12) is the first to be submitted to external evaluation. The evaluators found that the strategy has provided added value to the efforts of the Member States in the drugs field and that the promotion of evidence-based interventions in the EU strategy was commended by stakeholders (Rand Europe, 2012). The report highlighted the area of information, research and evaluation, where the EU approach and infrastructures actively support knowledge transfer within Europe. For the next strategy, which will be drafted during 2012, the evaluators recommended maintaining the balanced approach, adopting integrated policy approaches across licit and illicit substances including new psychoactive substances, building up the evidence base in drug supply reduction and clarifying the roles of EU coordination bodies. Given the current political interest in the topic and its clear European dimension, an important issue for the upcoming strategy will be responses to new psychoactive substances." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 20. |
101. International Drug Conventions and Heroin-Assisted Treatment "Many countries believe (erroneously) that the international drug conventions prohibit the use of heroin in medical treatment. Furthermore, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) has exerted great pressure on countries to cease prescribing heroin for any medical purpose. Nevertheless, a few countries, including the UK, Belgium, the Netherlands, Iceland, Malta, Canada and Switzerland, continue to use heroin (diamorphine) for general medical purposes, mostly in hospital settings (usually for severe pain relief). Until recently, however, Britain was the only country that allowed doctors to prescribe heroin for the treatment of drug dependence." Stimson, Gerry V., and Nicky Metrebian, "Prescribing Heroin: What is the Evidence?" Centre for Research on Drugs and Health Behavior, London, England: Rowntree Foundation, 2003. |
102. Legal Distinctions Between Drugs and Amounts "In Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Spain, Ireland, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania and the UK, the penalty for a drugs offence officially varies according to the nature of the substance involved. Thus the law in those 13 countries instructs or requests the judicial authorities to distinguish between drugs when prosecuting. Of these 13 countries, in Malta the penalty is only varied for a charge of drug trafficking, whereas in Belgium, Czech Republic, Ireland and Luxembourg it is only different for the offence of possession of (a small amount of) cannabis for personal use. Note: A list of the "Main laws and lists of substances (with examples) can be found at: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Addiction, Classification of Controlled Drugs, from the web at |
103. EU Drug Strategy "The EU Drug Strategy has no main priorities specifically focusing on national strategies, laws and public expenditure, however, the cross-cutting theme of coordination does include an objective to: ‘Ensure that a balanced and integrated approach is reflected in national policies and in the EU approach towards third countries and in international fora’. In addition, included under the Strategy’s cross-cutting theme of evaluation, an expected result is: ‘To give clear indications about the merits and shortcoming of current actions and activities on EU level, evaluation should continue to be an integral part of an EU approach to drugs policy’. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "EMCDDA trend report for the evaluation of the 2005–12 EU drugs strategy" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, April 2012), pp. 7-8. |
104. 'Global' Scope "Five countries have adopted strategies or action plans that have a ‘global’ scope, covering licit and illicit drugs and, in some cases, addictive behaviours. The broad approach is reflected in the policy document titles: Belgium’s ‘Comprehensive and integrated policy on drugs’; France’s ‘Governmental plan to fight drugs and drug addiction’; Germany’s ‘National strategy for drug and addiction policy’; Sweden’s ‘Cohesive strategy for alcohol, narcotic drugs, doping and tobacco (ANDT) policy’; and Norway’s ‘Action plan for the drugs and alcohol field’. With the exception of Norway, which has separate tobacco and gambling strategies, there are no separate national strategies for other licit drugs or addictive behaviours in these countries." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 22. |
105. Harm Reduction Measures "In 2003, the Council of the European Union recommended a number of policies and interventions to the EU Member States to tackle health-related harm associated with drug dependence (26). In a follow-up report in 2007, the Commission of the European Communities confirmed that the prevention and reduction of drug-related harm is a public health objective in all countries (27). National drug policies have been increasingly covering the harm-reduction objectives defined in the EU drugs strategy, and there is now broad agreement among countries on the importance of reducing the spread of infectious diseases and overdose-related morbidity and mortality and other harms. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 33. |
106. Reducing Loss of Life as Policy Priority "Reducing the loss of life due to drug use is a key policy priority in the majority of European countries, with 16 reporting that it is a focus in their national or regional drug policy documents, or that it is the subject of a specific action plan. In some other European countries, such as Austria and Norway, increases in drug-related deaths observed in previous years have raised awareness of the need for improved responses." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 86. |
107. Alcohol "When it comes to alcohol policy, it seems that the 15 'old' EU member states have converged to some extent. While alcohol policy has grown weaker in Finland and Sweden, several other countries -- including Southern European ones -- have reinforced their policies, for instance by lowering legal blood-alcohol levels for drivers and introducing stricter age limits for purchasing alcohol in both shops and restaurants." Centralförbundet för alkohol- och narkotikaupplysning, "Drogutvecklingen i Sverige 2006" ((Drug Trends in Sweden 2006) (Stockholm, Sweden: CAN, 2006), Report No. 98, p. 34. |
108. Need for Social Reintegration and Services for Drug Users "Drug use is an important factor that increases the likelihood of concurrent social exclusion (EMCDDA, 2003a). However, there is no clear causality between drug use and social exclusion, as either may lead to the other, and both may be preceded and caused by (unknown) third factors. Many problem drug users already experienced problems in other spheres of life, including social exclusion, prior to their drug use. In this sense, problem drug users can also belong to other vulnerable groups, such as homeless people or people with mental health problems. Likewise, it is important to note that not all drug users are socially excluded (and vice versa). EMCDDA Insights No. 13: Social reintegration and employment: evidence and interventions for drug users in treatment (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012), doi: 10.2810/72023, p. 23. |
109. Homeless and Housing Assistance "Four countries (16 %; n = 25) reported that the accommodation needs of problem drug users were specifically addressed by actions set out in national social protection and inclusion plans. In Austria the National Action Plan on Social Inclusion (Nationaler Aktionsplan Soziale Eingliederung) states that socially assisted housing should be increasingly provided to drug-dependent people in the future. In the Netherlands, the national government and the municipalities of the four largest cities signed and funded the Strategy Plan for Social Relief (Plan van Aanpak Maatschappelijke Opvang) for those groups with the most complex and persistent needs. In a second phase of the plan, starting in 2010, the remaining 39 municipalities began implementation. In Portugal, the accommodation needs of drug users are addressed through explicit mention of the population in the National Strategy for the Integration of Homeless People. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "EMCDDA Insights Series No 13: Social reintegration and employment: evidence and interventions for drug users in treatment" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012), doi: 10.2810/72023, p. 181. |
110. Prevention Strategies "Environmental prevention strategies are designed to change the cultural, social, physical and economic environments in which people make their choices about drug use. These strategies typically include measures such as alcohol pricing, and bans on tobacco advertising and smoking where there is good evidence of effectiveness. Other environmental strategies focus on developing protective school environments. Among the examples reported by European countries are: promotion of a positive and supportive learning climate (Poland, Finland); provision of education in citizenship norms and values (France); and making schools safer through the presence of police in the neighbourhood (Portugal). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 28. |
111. Universal Prevention Strategies "Universal prevention addresses entire populations, predominantly in school and community settings. It aims to reduce substance-related risk behaviour by providing young people with the necessary competences to avoid or delay initiation into substance use. A recent evaluation of the ‘Unplugged’ prevention programme in the Czech Republic found that participating students reported significantly reduced rates of smoking, as well as less frequent smoking, drunkenness, cannabis use, and use of any drug (Gabrhelik et al., 2012). However, there have been recent reports of reductions in the provision of universal prevention in Greece and Spain, and in prevention staffing levels in Latvia, which supports earlier suggestions that prevention is an area affected by budgetary cuts in this period of economic downturn European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 29. |
112. Selective Prevention Strategies "Selective prevention intervenes in specific groups, families or communities who, due to their reduced social ties and resources, may be more likely to develop drug use or progress into dependency. Denmark, Germany, Spain, Austria and Portugal have implemented targeted prevention interventions for pupils in vocational schools, a group of young people identified as being at elevated risk of developing drug use problems. Ireland has taken a broader approach in terms of prevention work with at-risk youth, by working to improve literacy and numeracy among disadvantaged students. Community-level interventions targeting high-risk groups of young people, such as reported by Italy and municipalities in the north of Europe, combine individual and environmental strategies through outreach, youth work, and formal cooperation between local authorities and non-governmental organisations. Such approaches aim to target high-risk youth without recruiting them into specific programmes." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 29. |
113. Definitions "According to our convention ‘decriminalisation’ comprises removal of a conduct or activity from the sphere of criminal law. Prohibition remains the rule, but sanctions for use (and its preparatory acts) no longer fall within the framework of the criminal law (elimination of the notion of a criminal offence). This may be reflected either by the imposition of sanctions of a different kind (administrative sanctions without the establishment of a police record – even if certain administrative measures are included in the police record in some countries, such as France), or the abolition of all sanctions. Other (non-criminal) laws can then regulate the conduct or activity that has been decriminalised. European Monitoring Center on Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Illicit drug use in the EU: legislative approaches" (Lisbon, Portugal: EMCDDA, 2005), p. 12, |
114. Integrated Approach to Licit and Illicit Drugs "The trend towards an integrated approach to substance use appears to exist primarily among the pre-2004 EU Member States. It is these countries that have adopted a global strategy, or that are in the process of integrating their illicit drug and alcohol strategies or that have included many licit drug objectives in their illicit drug strategy. In central and eastern Europe, the picture is mainly one of separate strategies or just illicit drug strategies, with limited mention of licit drugs." European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, "Annual report 2012: the state of the drugs problem in Europe" (Luxembourg: Publicatons Office of the European Union, November 2012), Catalog No. TDAC12001ENC, doi:10.2810/64775, p. 22. |
115. "Spice" and Other Herbal Highs "‘Spice’ and other ‘herbal’ products are often referred to as ‘legal highs’ or ‘herbal highs’, in reference to their legal status and purported natural herbal make-up (McLachlan, 2009; Lindigkeit et al., 2009; Zimmermann et al., 2009). However, albeit not controlled, it appears that most of the ingredients listed on the packaging are actually not present in the ‘Spice’ products and it is seems likely that the psychoactive effects reported are most probably due to added synthetic cannabinoids, which are not shown on the label. There is no evidence that JWH, CP and/or HU [three chemically distinct groups of synthetic cannabinoids] compounds are present in all ‘Spice’ products or even batches of the same product. Different amounts or combinations of these substances seem to have been used in different ‘Spice’ products to produce cannabis-like effects. It is possible that substances from these or other chemical groups with a cannabinoid agonist or other pharmacological activity could be added to any herbal mixture (17) (Griffiths et al., 2009). "The emergence of new, smokable herbal products laced with synthetic cannabinoids can also be seen as a significant new development in the field of so-called ‘designer drugs’. With the appearance, for the first time, of new synthetic cannabinoids, it can be anticipated that the concept of ‘designer drugs’ being almost exclusively linked to the large series of compounds with phenethylamine and tryptamine nucleus will change significantly (18). There are more than 100 known compounds with cannabinoid receptor activity and it can be assumed that further such substances from different chemical groups will appear (with direct or indirect stimulation of CB1 receptors)." "Understanding the 'Spice' phenomenon," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009), p. 21. |
116. Monitoring of Spice and New Psychoactive Substances "A dramatic online snapshot of the Spice phenomenon as an emerging trend has been recently given by an important web mapping program, the Psychonaut Web Mapping Project, a European Commission-funded project involving researchers from seven European countries (Belgium, Finland, Germany, Italy, Norway, Spain, and UK), which aims to develop a web scanning system to identify newly marketed psychoactive compounds, and their combinations (e.g., ketamine and Spice, cannabis and Spice), on the basis of the information available on the Internet (Psychonaut Web Mapping Research Group, 2010). As a major result of the Project, a new and updated web-based database is now widely accessible to implement a regular monitoring of the web for novel and recreational drugs." Fattore, Liana and Fratta, Walter, "Beyond THC: the new generation of cannabinoid designer drugs," Frontiers in Behaviorial Neuroscience (Lausanne, Switzerland: September 2011) Volume 5, Article 60, p. 3. |
117. Harm Reduction Defined "Harm reduction encompasses interventions, programmes and policies that seek to reduce the health, social and economic harms of drug use to individuals, communities and societies. A core principle of harm reduction is the development of pragmatic responses to dealing with drug use through a hierarchy of intervention goals that place primary emphasis on reducing the health-related harms of continued drug use (Des Jarlais, 1995; Lenton and Single, 2004). Harm reduction approaches neither exclude nor presume a treatment goal of abstinence, and this means that abstinence-oriented interventions can also fall within the hierarchy of harm reduction goals. We therefore envisage harm reduction as a ‘combination intervention’, made up of a package of interventions tailored to local setting and need that give primary emphasis to reducing the harms of drug use. In relation to reducing the harms of injecting drug use, for example, this combination of interventions may draw upon needle and syringe programmes (NSPs), opioid substitution treatment (OST), counselling services, the provision of drug consumption rooms (DCRs), peer education and outreach, and the promotion of public policies conducive to protecting the health of populations at risk (WHO, 2009)." "Harm reduction: evidence, impacts and challenges," European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2010), p. 19. |