"Insulin is a hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels. The pancreas produces it, and its primary function is to help cells in the body absorb glucose from the bloodstream, which is then used for energy. In bodybuilding, insulin is often used as a performance-enhancing substance due to its anabolic effects. Insulin stimulates the uptake of amino acids and glucose into muscle cells, promoting muscle growth and repair [16]. However, the misuse of insulin can have serious health consequences.

"Human growth hormone (HGH) is a hormone naturally produced by the pituitary gland and plays a crucial role in stimulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in humans. It is important in childhood for normal growth and development, and in adulthood, it helps to maintain muscle mass and bone density and regulate metabolism. HGH also significantly affects the immune system, cognitive function, and mood [14].

"Anabolic steroids are a class of synthetic substances that mimic the effects of the male hormone testosterone in the body. Bodybuilders and other athletes use these substances to increase muscle mass, strength, and endurance as well as to shorten recovery times after workouts. Anabolic steroids are also used medically to treat delayed puberty, muscle wasting, and osteoporosis [10]. Anabolic steroids are associated with numerous health risks, both short-term and long-term.

"Bodybuilding has a long history of performance-enhancing substance [PES] use. The early forms of PES in bodybuilding were simple remedies such as caffeine, alcohol, and opiates. However, the emergence of anabolic-androgenic steroids in the mid-20th century revolutionized the sport and transformed it into what we see today [5]. In the early days of bodybuilding, natural training methods and diet were the only ways to achieve a well-sculpted body.

"We did not find evidence that THN [Take-Home Naloxone] training was associated with risk compensation behavior in this cohort of people who inject drugs. Rather, there was no significant change in frequency of injecting any drugs, injecting opioids, or using benzodiazepines after accessing THN.

"The number of accidental drug overdose deaths increased by 622% between 2000 and 2020, and age-standardized mortality rates increased nearly four-fold in both men and women. Age-period-cohort decomposition found rapid increases in mortality since 2012 in men and women, with higher mortality risk in cohorts born after 1990. The fastest increase occurred in Black Americans since 2012, and Americans of all races born after 1975 had significantly higher mortality risk, with mortality risk increasing rapidly in more recent cohorts.

"Five studies were identified that looked at prevention of methamphetamine use, ecstasy use, cocaine use and general drug use. Evaluated preventive interventions were family-centred programmes; school-based interventions; screening, brief intervention and referral to treatment (SBIRT); and motivational interviewing. The first four were evaluated in a universal population whereas motivational interviewing was evaluated in an at-risk or indicated population.

"Three studies evaluated cannabis use prevention interventions. Two studies evaluated school-based interventions and the third study evaluated two family-centred interventions and a web-based intervention.

"Four studies evaluated the cost-effectiveness of prescription opioid misuse prevention, three of which were conducted in the USA and one in South Korea. The interventions identified for the USA setting were a school-based programme, a family-centred programme and misuse-deterrent opioid formulations; a doctor's database assisting patient risk assessment was evaluated in the South Korean setting. All four studies utilised economic models to evaluate cost and benefit of intervention over 1- to 30-year time horizons.

"In this pilot pretest–posttest quasi-experimental study, we saw a lower proportion of SSP clients exclusively inject heroin and a higher proportion of SSP clients consume heroin through both injection and smoking after the implementation of a heroin pipe distribution program. The proportion of SSP clients who reported syringe reuse was also lower following the heroin pipe distribution intervention.